{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,23]],"date-time":"2026-08-23T15:51:00Z","timestamp":1787500260585,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":164,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,24]],"date-time":"2025-03-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1742774400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100009708","name":"Novo Nordisk Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["0084960"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["0084960"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100009708","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100009708","name":"Novo Nordisk Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R450-2023-989"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R450-2023-989"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100009708","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003554","name":"Lundbeck Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["0084960"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["0084960"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003554","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003554","name":"Lundbeck Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R450-2023-989"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R450-2023-989"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003554","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biomolecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Dysregulated immune activation plays a key role in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases, including frontotemporal dementia (FTD). This study reviews immunological biomarkers associated with FTD and its subtypes. A systematic search of PubMed and Web of Science was conducted for studies published before 1 January 2025, focusing on immunological biomarkers in CSF or blood from FTD patients with comparisons to healthy or neurological controls. A total of 124 studies were included, involving 6686 FTD patients and 202 immune biomarkers. Key findings include elevated levels of GFAP and MCP1\/CCL2 in both CSF and blood and consistently increased CHIT1 and YKL-40 in CSF. Complement proteins from the classical activation pathway emerged as promising targets. Distinct immune markers were found to differentiate FTD from Alzheimer\u2019s disease (AD) and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), with GFAP, SPARC, and SPP1 varying between FTD and AD and IL-15, HERV-K, NOD2, and CHIT1 differing between FTD and ALS. A few markers, such as Galectin-3 and PGRN, distinguished FTD subtypes. Enrichment analysis highlighted IL-10 signaling and immune cell chemotaxis as potential pathways for further exploration. This study provides an overview of immunological biomarkers in FTD, emphasizing those most relevant for future research on immune dysregulation in FTD pathogenesis.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/biom15040473","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,24]],"date-time":"2025-03-24T13:48:20Z","timestamp":1742824100000},"page":"473","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Immunological Fluid Biomarkers in Frontotemporal Dementia: A Systematic Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Philip Ahle","family":"Erichsen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Neurogenetics Clinic & Research Lab, Danish Dementia Research Centre, Rigshospitalet, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Emil Elb\u00e6k","family":"Henriksen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neurogenetics Clinic & Research Lab, Danish Dementia Research Centre, Rigshospitalet, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0453-5582","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"J\u00f8rgen Erik","family":"Nielsen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neurogenetics Clinic & Research Lab, Danish Dementia Research Centre, Rigshospitalet, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Patrick","family":"Ejlerskov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neurogenetics Clinic & Research Lab, Danish Dementia Research Centre, Rigshospitalet, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5461-162X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anja Hviid","family":"Simonsen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neurogenetics Clinic & Research Lab, Danish Dementia Research Centre, Rigshospitalet, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3559-1923","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anders","family":"Toft","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neurogenetics Clinic & Research Lab, Danish Dementia Research Centre, Rigshospitalet, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S96","DOI":"10.1017\/cjn.2016.25","article-title":"The Prevalence and Incidence of Frontotemporal Dementia: A Systematic Review","volume":"43","author":"Hogan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Can. 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