{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,8]],"date-time":"2026-09-08T11:40:12Z","timestamp":1788867612993,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":258,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,23]],"date-time":"2025-04-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1745366400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Graduate School for Medical Sciences, University of Groningen","award":["23OK1049"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["23OK1049"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002997","name":"Dutch Kidney Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["23OK1049"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["23OK1049"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002997","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biomolecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Damage to mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) results in defective electron transport system (ETS) complexes, initiating a cycle of impaired oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS), increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, and chronic low-grade inflammation (inflammaging). This culminates in energy failure, cellular senescence, and progressive tissue degeneration. Rapamycin and metformin are the most extensively studied longevity drugs. Rapamycin inhibits mTORC1, promoting mitophagy, enhancing mitochondrial biogenesis, and reducing inflammation. Metformin partially inhibits Complex I, lowering reverse electron transfer (RET)-induced ROS formation and activating AMPK to stimulate autophagy and mitochondrial turnover. Both compounds mimic caloric restriction, shift metabolism toward a catabolic state, and confer preclinical\u2014and, in the case of metformin, clinical\u2014longevity benefits. More recently, small molecules directly targeting mitochondrial membranes and ETS components have emerged. Compounds such as Elamipretide, Sonlicromanol, SUL-138, and others modulate metabolism and mitochondrial function while exhibiting similarities to metformin and rapamycin, highlighting their potential in promoting longevity. The key question moving forward is whether these interventions should be applied chronically to sustain mitochondrial health or intermittently during episodes of stress. A pragmatic strategy may combine chronic metformin use with targeted mitochondrial therapies during acute physiological stress.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/biom15050614","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,23]],"date-time":"2025-04-23T10:40:48Z","timestamp":1745404848000},"page":"614","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["Targeting the Electron Transport System for Enhanced Longevity"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-2931-4938","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marko","family":"Radovic","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacology, Section of Experimental Pharmacology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Hanzeplein 1 (AP50), 9713 GZ Groningen, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6270-7277","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lucas P.","family":"Gartzke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacology, Section of Experimental Pharmacology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Hanzeplein 1 (AP50), 9713 GZ Groningen, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-3433-7378","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Simon E.","family":"Wink","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacology, Section of Experimental Pharmacology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Hanzeplein 1 (AP50), 9713 GZ Groningen, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Joris A.","family":"van der Kleij","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacology, Section of Experimental Pharmacology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Hanzeplein 1 (AP50), 9713 GZ Groningen, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-3873-4165","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Frouwkje A.","family":"Politiek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacology, Section of Experimental Pharmacology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Hanzeplein 1 (AP50), 9713 GZ Groningen, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5850-5667","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Guido","family":"Krenning","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacology, Section of Experimental Pharmacology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Hanzeplein 1 (AP50), 9713 GZ Groningen, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7124","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.78.11.7124","article-title":"The aging process","volume":"78","author":"Harman","year":"1981","journal-title":"Proc. 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