{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T04:34:28Z","timestamp":1787027668272,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":71,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,18]],"date-time":"2025-07-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1752796800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"MIUR Progetto Eccellenza (2023\u20132027)"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biomolecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Finasteride, a 5\u03b1-reductase inhibitor commonly prescribed for androgenetic alopecia, has been linked to persistent adverse effects after discontinuation, known as post-finasteride syndrome (PFS). Symptoms include neurological, psychiatric, sexual, and gastrointestinal disturbances. Emerging evidence suggests that PFS may involve disruption of sex steroid homeostasis, neuroactive steroid deficiency (notably allopregnanolone, ALLO), and gut\u2013brain axis alterations. Objective: This study aimed to investigate the effects of finasteride withdrawal (FW) in a rat model and evaluate the potential protective effects of ALLO on gut and hypothalamic inflammation. Methods: Adult male Sprague Dawley rats were treated with finasteride for 20 days, followed by one month of drug withdrawal. A subgroup received ALLO treatment during the withdrawal. Histological, molecular, and biochemical analyses were performed on the colon and hypothalamus. Gut microbiota-derived metabolites and markers of neuroinflammation and blood\u2013brain barrier (BBB) integrity were also assessed. Results: At FW, rats exhibited significant colonic inflammation, including a 4.3-fold increase in M\u03c61 levels (p &lt; 0.001), a 2.31-fold decrease in butyrate concentration (p &lt; 0.01), and elevated hypothalamic GFAP and Iba-1 protein expression (+360%, p &lt; 0.01 and +100%, p &lt; 0.01, respectively). ALLO treatment rescued these parameters in both the colon and hypothalamus but only partially restored mucosal and BBB structural integrity, as well as the NF-\u03baB\/PPAR\u03b3 pathway. Conclusions: This preclinical study shows that FW causes inflammation in both the gut and hypothalamus in rats. ALLO treatment helped reduce several of these effects. These results suggest ALLO could have a protective role and have potential as a treatment for PFS patients.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/biom15071044","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,18]],"date-time":"2025-07-18T10:10:38Z","timestamp":1752833438000},"page":"1044","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Exploration of the Possible Relationships Between Gut and Hypothalamic Inflammation and Allopregnanolone: Preclinical Findings in a Post-Finasteride Rat Model"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1454-2196","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Silvia","family":"Diviccaro","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences \u201cRodolfo Paoletti\u201d, Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Milano, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5692-3328","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roberto","family":"Oleari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences \u201cRodolfo Paoletti\u201d, Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Milano, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6832-6053","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Federica","family":"Amoruso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences \u201cRodolfo Paoletti\u201d, Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Milano, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fabrizio","family":"Fontana","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences \u201cRodolfo Paoletti\u201d, Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Milano, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5935-3597","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lucia","family":"Cioffi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences \u201cRodolfo Paoletti\u201d, Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Milano, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5235-1561","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gabriela","family":"Chrostek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences \u201cRodolfo Paoletti\u201d, Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Milano, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-6414-5722","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vera","family":"Abenante","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Theoreo Srl., Via Degli Ulivi 3, 84090 Montecorvino Pugliano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2962-7379","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jacopo","family":"Troisi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Theoreo Srl., Via Degli Ulivi 3, 84090 Montecorvino Pugliano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8630-8361","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anna","family":"Cariboni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences \u201cRodolfo Paoletti\u201d, Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Milano, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7741-826X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Silvia","family":"Giatti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences \u201cRodolfo Paoletti\u201d, Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Milano, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0861-8967","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roberto Cosimo","family":"Melcangi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences \u201cRodolfo Paoletti\u201d, Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Milano, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1515\/hmbci-2015-0015","article-title":"Finasteride, not tamsulosin, increases severity of erectile dysfunction and decreases testosterone levels in men with benign prostatic hyperplasia","volume":"23","author":"Traish","year":"2015","journal-title":"Horm. Mol. Biol. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Diviccaro, S., Melcangi, R.C., and Giatti, S. (2020). Post-finasteride syndrome: An emerging clinical problem. Neurobiol. Stress., 12.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ynstr.2019.100209"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41443-025-01025-6","article-title":"Post-finasteride syndrome-a true clinical entity?","volume":"37","author":"Cilio","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Impot. Res."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1007\/s11154-015-9319-y","article-title":"Adverse effects of 5alpha-reductase inhibitors: What do we know, don\u2019t know, and need to know?","volume":"16","author":"Traish","year":"2015","journal-title":"Rev. Endocr. Metab. Disord."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4669","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2016-2726","article-title":"Characteristics of Men Who Report Persistent Sexual Symptoms After Finasteride Use for Hair Loss","volume":"101","author":"Basaria","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1201","DOI":"10.21037\/tau.2020.03.21","article-title":"Penile vascular abnormalities in young men with persistent side effects after finasteride use for the treatment of androgenic alopecia","volume":"9","author":"Khera","year":"2020","journal-title":"Transl. Androl. Urol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.3233\/JRS-210023","article-title":"Diagnostic criteria for enduring sexual dysfunction after treatment with antidepressants, finasteride and isotretinoin","volume":"33","author":"Healy","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Risk Saf. Med."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsbmb.2017.04.003","article-title":"Neuroactive steroid levels and psychiatric and andrological features in post-finasteride patients","volume":"171","author":"Melcangi","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Steroid. Biochem. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"746","DOI":"10.1159\/000442982","article-title":"Effects of Subchronic Finasteride Treatment and Withdrawal on Neuroactive Steroid Levels and Their Receptors in the Male Rat Brain","volume":"103","author":"Giatti","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neuroendocrinology"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"674","DOI":"10.1111\/andr.13515","article-title":"Exploring rat corpus cavernosum alterations induced by finasteride treatment and withdrawal","volume":"12","author":"Diviccaro","year":"2024","journal-title":"Andrology"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Diviccaro, S., Giatti, S., Cioffi, L., Falvo, E., Herian, M., Caruso, D., and Melcangi, R.C. (2022). Gut Inflammation Induced by Finasteride Withdrawal: Therapeutic Effect of Allopregnanolone in Adult Male Rats. Biomolecules, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom12111567"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psyneuen.2018.09.021","article-title":"Treatment of male rats with finasteride, an inhibitor of 5alpha-reductase enzyme, induces long-lasting effects on depressive-like behavior, hippocampal neurogenesis, neuroinflammation and gut microbiota composition","volume":"99","author":"Diviccaro","year":"2019","journal-title":"Psychoneuroendocrinology"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1263","DOI":"10.1007\/s40618-020-01424-0","article-title":"Alterations of gut microbiota composition in post-finasteride patients: A pilot study","volume":"44","author":"Borgo","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Endocrinol. Investig."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Backstrom, T., Doverskog, M., Blackburn, T.P., Scharschmidt, B.F., and Felipo, V. (2024). Allopregnanolone and its antagonist modulate neuroinflammation and neurological impairment. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev., 161.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2024.105668"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12996","DOI":"10.1111\/jne.12996","article-title":"Allopregnanolone: An overview on its synthesis and effects","volume":"34","author":"Diviccaro","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Neuroendocrinol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1007\/s40471-024-00349-z","article-title":"Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis in Psychiatry: Focus on Depressive Disorders","volume":"11","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Curr. Epidemiol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yfrne.2018.04.002","article-title":"The Neuroendocrinology of the Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis: A Behavioural Perspective","volume":"51","author":"Cussotto","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Neuroendocrinol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6941","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-019-1572-8","article-title":"The Impact of Chronic Intestinal Inflammation on Brain Disorders: The Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis","volume":"56","author":"Serra","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"658354","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.658354","article-title":"Impact of Bacterial Metabolites on Gut Barrier Function and Host Immunity: A Focus on Bacterial Metabolism and Its Relevance for Intestinal Inflammation","volume":"12","author":"Gasaly","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4939-3603-8_16","article-title":"Macrophage Isolation from the Mouse Small and Large Intestine","volume":"1422","author":"Harusato","year":"2016","journal-title":"Methods Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1016\/0891-5849(88)90023-8","article-title":"Lipid peroxidation measured as thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances in tissue slices: Characterization and comparison with homogenates and microsomes","volume":"4","author":"Fraga","year":"1988","journal-title":"Free Radic. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"54161","article-title":"Improved Swiss-rolling Technique for Intestinal Tissue Preparation for Immunohistochemical and Immunofluorescent Analyses","volume":"113","author":"Bialkowska","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Vis. Exp."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bihan, D.G., Rydzak, T., Wyss, M., Pittman, K., McCoy, K.D., and Lewis, I.A. (2022). Method for absolute quantification of short chain fatty acids via reverse phase chromatography mass spectrometry. PLoS ONE, 17.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0267093"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pneurobio.2013.07.005","article-title":"Allopregnanolone and mood disorders","volume":"113","author":"Backstrom","year":"2014","journal-title":"Prog. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"524","DOI":"10.2164\/jandrol.108.005660","article-title":"Emerging roles for neurosteroids in sexual behavior and function","volume":"29","author":"King","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Androl."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.mp.4001782","article-title":"Influence of mirtazapine on plasma concentrations of neuroactive steroids in major depression and on 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase activity","volume":"11","author":"Schule","year":"2006","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"704","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2006.03.026","article-title":"Decreased cerebrospinal fluid allopregnanolone levels in women with posttraumatic stress disorder","volume":"60","author":"Rasmusson","year":"2006","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2109","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-016-4258-1","article-title":"Women with premenstrual dysphoric disorder have altered sensitivity to allopregnanolone over the menstrual cycle compared to controls-a pilot study","volume":"233","author":"Timby","year":"2016","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psyneuen.2017.02.012","article-title":"Lower allopregnanolone during pregnancy predicts postpartum depression: An exploratory study","volume":"79","author":"Osborne","year":"2017","journal-title":"Psychoneuroendocrinology"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1080\/713847135","article-title":"Serum allopregnanolone levels relate to FSFI score during the menstrual cycle","volume":"29","author":"Nappi","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Sex. Marital. Ther."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1038\/s41386-023-01626-z","article-title":"Neurosteroids: Mechanistic considerations and clinical prospects","volume":"49","author":"Maguire","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"774","DOI":"10.1038\/d41573-023-00148-z","article-title":"FDA approves first oral drug for postpartum depression, but rejects it for major depressive disorder","volume":"22","author":"Mullard","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Drug Discov."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2952","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2024.05.005","article-title":"Gut bacteria convert glucocorticoids into progestins in the presence of hydrogen gas","volume":"187","author":"McCurry","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10361","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.0441-14.2014","article-title":"Molecular and functional diversity of GABA-A receptors in the enteric nervous system of the mouse colon","volume":"34","author":"Seifi","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phrs.2014.12.001","article-title":"GABA and GABA receptors in the gastrointestinal tract: From motility to inflammation","volume":"93","author":"Auteri","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Res."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102579","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autneu.2019.102579","article-title":"Developmental and age-dependent plasticity of GABA(A) receptors in the mouse colon: Implications in colonic motility and inflammation","volume":"221","author":"Seifi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Auton. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneuroim.2007.05.013","article-title":"GABA (A) receptor subunits RNA expression in mice peritoneal macrophages modulate their IL-6\/IL-12 production","volume":"188","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmunol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1186\/s12964-023-01386-9","article-title":"Macrophage polarization in inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"21","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cell Commun. Signal"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1080310","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1080310","article-title":"Macrophage: Key player in the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases","volume":"14","author":"Yang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"G59","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpgi.00123.2016","article-title":"Appleyard CB: Colonic macrophage polarization in homeostasis, inflammation, and cancer","volume":"311","author":"Isidro","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1341","DOI":"10.1136\/gut.2006.093484","article-title":"PPARgamma as a new therapeutic target in inflammatory bowel diseases","volume":"55","author":"Dubuquoy","year":"2006","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"620839","DOI":"10.1155\/2012\/620839","article-title":"PPARgamma in Inflammatory Bowel Disease","volume":"2012","author":"Annese","year":"2012","journal-title":"PPAR Res."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2023.04.025","article-title":"Role of PPAR-Allopregnanolone Signaling in Behavioral and Inflammatory Gut-Brain Axis Communications","volume":"94","author":"Pinna","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1036","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2019.02.006","article-title":"Stimulation of Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor-alpha by N-Palmitoylethanolamine Engages Allopregnanolone Biosynthesis to Modulate Emotional Behavior","volume":"85","author":"Locci","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zulinska, S., Strosznajder, A.K., and Strosznajder, J.B. (2024). Current View on PPAR-alpha and Its Relation to Neurosteroids in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease and Other Neuropsychiatric Disorders: Promising Targets in a Therapeutic Strategy. Int. J Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25137106"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"785","DOI":"10.1038\/s41575-022-00675-x","article-title":"The role of goblet cells and mucus in intestinal homeostasis","volume":"19","author":"Gustafsson","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1444","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2015.10.072","article-title":"Epithelial IL-18 Equilibrium Controls Barrier Function in Colitis","volume":"163","author":"Nowarski","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1713","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra1102942","article-title":"Ulcerative colitis","volume":"365","author":"Danese","year":"2011","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4916","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awad303","article-title":"Microbiota from Alzheimer\u2019s patients induce deficits in cognition and hippocampal neurogenesis","volume":"146","author":"Grabrucker","year":"2023","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"681","DOI":"10.1038\/s12276-023-00960-y","article-title":"Intestinal mucus components and secretion mechanisms: What we do and do not know","volume":"55","author":"Song","year":"2023","journal-title":"Exp. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"4557","article-title":"A guide to histomorphological evaluation of intestinal inflammation in mouse models","volume":"7","author":"Erben","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Clin. Exp. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"550","DOI":"10.1159\/000505132","article-title":"Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Depression-Like Behaviors Is Ameliorated by Sodium Butyrate via Inhibiting Neuroinflammation and Oxido-Nitrosative Stress","volume":"105","author":"Qiu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pharmacology"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"569","DOI":"10.1097\/FBP.0b013e32836546fc","article-title":"Effects of sodium butyrate in animal models of mania and depression: Implications as a new mood stabilizer","volume":"24","author":"Resende","year":"2013","journal-title":"Behav. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3165876","DOI":"10.1155\/jnme\/3165876","article-title":"Effects of Short Chain Fatty Acid-Butyrate Supplementation on the Disease Severity, Inflammation, and Psychological Factors in Patients with Active Ulcerative Colitis: A Double-Blind Randomized Controlled Trial","volume":"2025","author":"Firoozi","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Nutr. Metab."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1186\/s12944-024-02203-z","article-title":"Effects of short-chain fatty acid-butyrate supplementation on expression of circadian-clock genes, sleep quality, and inflammation in patients with active ulcerative colitis: A double-blind randomized controlled trial","volume":"23","author":"Firoozi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lipids Health Dis."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"643","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bpg.2017.09.011","article-title":"Action and function of Faecalibacterium prausnitzii in health and disease","volume":"31","author":"Faria","year":"2017","journal-title":"Best. Pract. Res. Clin. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuint.2016.06.011","article-title":"The neuropharmacology of butyrate: The bread and butter of the microbiota-gut-brain axis?","volume":"99","author":"Stilling","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neurochem. Int."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainres.2014.07.050","article-title":"Interactions of innate and adaptive immunity in brain development and function","volume":"1617","author":"Filiano","year":"2015","journal-title":"Brain. Res."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"874","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.bjp.0705682","article-title":"Regulation of microglial inflammatory response by sodium butyrate and short-chain fatty acids","volume":"141","author":"Huuskonen","year":"2004","journal-title":"Br. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"651","DOI":"10.1007\/s11745-013-3799-x","article-title":"Acetate reduces PGE2 release and modulates phospholipase and cyclooxygenase levels in neuroglia stimulated with lipopolysaccharide","volume":"48","author":"Soliman","year":"2013","journal-title":"Lipids"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"555","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1471-4159.2012.07955.x","article-title":"Acetate reduces microglia inflammatory signaling in vitro","volume":"123","author":"Soliman","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Neurochem."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hirschberg, S., Gisevius, B., Duscha, A., and Haghikia, A. (2019). Implications of Diet and The Gut Microbiome in Neuroinflammatory and Neurodegenerative Diseases. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms20123109"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2565","DOI":"10.1007\/s40618-024-02345-y","article-title":"Analysis of the finasteride treatment and its withdrawal in the rat hypothalamus and hippocampus at whole-transcriptome level","volume":"47","author":"Giatti","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Endocrinol. Investig."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"C1213","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpcell.00558.2003","article-title":"The tight junction: A multifunctional complex","volume":"286","author":"Schneeberger","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Cell Physiol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1186\/s12987-019-0123-z","article-title":"Claudin-5: Gatekeeper of neurological function","volume":"16","author":"Greene","year":"2019","journal-title":"Fluids Barriers CNS"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1007\/s12031-011-9496-4","article-title":"Specific role of tight junction proteins claudin-5, occludin, and ZO-1 of the blood-brain barrier in a focal cerebral ischemic insult","volume":"44","author":"Jiao","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Mol. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"943","DOI":"10.1002\/cne.22273","article-title":"Differential distribution of tight junction proteins suggests a role for tanycytes in blood-hypothalamus barrier regulation in the adult mouse brain","volume":"518","author":"Mullier","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Comp. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Almeida, F.B., Pinna, G., and Barros, H.M.T. (2021). The Role of HPA Axis and Allopregnanolone on the Neurobiology of Major Depressive Disorders and PTSD. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22115495"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kurita, K., Ohta, H., Shirakawa, I., Tanaka, M., Kitaura, Y., Iwasaki, Y., Matsuzaka, T., Shimano, H., Aoe, S., and Arima, H. (2021). Macrophages rely on extracellular serine to suppress aberrant cytokine production. Sci. Rep., 11.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-90086-w"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5821428","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/5821428","article-title":"Serine Deficiency Exacerbates Inflammation and Oxidative Stress via Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis in D-Galactose-Induced Aging Mice","volume":"2020","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mediators Inflamm."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kostrzewa, R.M. (2021). Glutaric acid neurotoxicity: Mechanisms and actions. Handbook of Neurotoxicity, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-71519-9"}],"container-title":["Biomolecules"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2218-273X\/15\/7\/1044\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:11:50Z","timestamp":1760033510000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2218-273X\/15\/7\/1044"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,18]]},"references-count":71,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7]]}},"alternative-id":["biom15071044"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/biom15071044","relation":{},"ISSN":["2218-273X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2218-273X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,18]]}}}