{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,22]],"date-time":"2026-09-22T22:04:49Z","timestamp":1790114689548,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":58,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,20]],"date-time":"2025-10-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1760918400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biomolecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Myocarditis is an inflammatory disease of the heart characterized by a complex interplay between innate and adaptive immune responses. The innate immune system provides first-line defense and includes soluble molecules, including macrophages, neutrophils, dendritic cells, and molecular mediators, but lacks immunological memory. In contrast, the adaptive immune system, via T and B lymphocytes, offers high specificity and long-term memory, which can sometimes target myocardial tissue, causing autoimmune injury. Particularly, acute myocarditis is characterized by dysregulated immune signaling, with cytokines (IL-2, IFN-\u03b3, IL-12, IL-4, IL-10) and chemokines (MCP-1, CXCL4, CXCL10) driving disease progression, while adhesion molecules (ICAM-1, VCAM-1, VAP-1) promote leukocyte trafficking and cardiac inflammation. The balance between pro-inflammatory and regulatory responses determines disease outcomes, ranging from resolution with recovery to fulminant myocarditis or progression to dilated cardiomyopathy. Emerging therapeutic approaches targeting cytokines, chemokines, and adhesion molecules, along with established immunosuppressive treatments, underline the potential for modulating immune responses in myocarditis and, thereby, improving patient outcomes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/biom15101475","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,20]],"date-time":"2025-10-20T09:23:34Z","timestamp":1760952214000},"page":"1475","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Inflammatory Mechanisms in Myocarditis\u2014Recent Therapeutic Strategies"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4150-5286","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stergios","family":"Soulaidopoulos","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"First Cardiology Department, Hippokration Hospital, Athens Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dimitris","family":"Tousoulis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"First Cardiology Department, Hippokration Hospital, Athens Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3473-1368","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marios","family":"Sagris","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"First Cardiology Department, Hippokration Hospital, Athens Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-3058-8000","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Svetlana","family":"Aghayan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"First Cardiology Department, Hippokration Hospital, Athens Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Konstantinos","family":"Platanias","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"First Cardiology Department, Hippokration Hospital, Athens Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0570-8510","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alexios","family":"Giannakodimos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"First Cardiology Department, Hippokration Hospital, Athens Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5943-2172","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emilia","family":"Lazarou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"First Cardiology Department, Hippokration Hospital, Athens Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7636-6725","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Konstantinos","family":"Tsioufis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"First Cardiology Department, Hippokration Hospital, Athens Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2802-9617","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"George","family":"Lazaros","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"First Cardiology Department, Hippokration Hospital, Athens Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"779","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2011.09.074","article-title":"Update on myocarditis","volume":"59","author":"Kindermann","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.1016\/S0046-8177(87)80363-5","article-title":"Myocarditis: The Dallas criteria","volume":"18","year":"1987","journal-title":"Hum. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"841","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.93.5.841","article-title":"Report of the 1995 World Health Organization\/International Society and Federation of Cardiology Task Force on the Definition and Classification of cardiomyopathies","volume":"93","author":"Richardson","year":"1996","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.95.1.163","article-title":"Elevations of cardiac troponin I associated with myocarditis: Experimental and clinical correlates","volume":"95","author":"Smith","year":"1997","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1815","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2004.11.069","article-title":"Diagnostic performance of cardiovascular magnetic resonance in patients with suspected acute myocarditis: Comparison of different approaches","volume":"45","author":"Zagrosek","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"730","DOI":"10.1007\/s10875-009-9339-z","article-title":"Myocarditis: Infection versus autoimmunity","volume":"29","author":"Rose","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1326","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehm076","article-title":"A prospective study of biopsy-proven myocarditis: Prognostic relevance of clinical and aetiopathogenetic features at diagnosis","volume":"28","author":"Caforio","year":"2007","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1091","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.99.8.1091","article-title":"From myocarditis to cardiomyopathy: Mechanisms of inflammation and cell death: Learning from the past for the future. Circulation","volume":"99","author":"Kawai","year":"1999","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1038\/s41569-020-00435-x","article-title":"Myocarditis and inflammatory cardiomyopathy: Current evidence and future directions","volume":"18","author":"Ammirati","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2982","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2020.11.010","article-title":"Global Burden of Cardiovascular Diseases and Risk Factors, 1990\u20132019: Update From the GBD 2019 Study","volume":"76","author":"Roth","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"404","DOI":"10.1097\/MEJ.0000000000000481","article-title":"Management of chest pain in the French emergency healthcare system: The prospective observational EPIDOULTHO study","volume":"25","author":"Charpentier","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. J. Emerg. Med."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gheart.2014.01.007","article-title":"The Global Burden of Myocarditis: Part 1: A Systematic Literature Review for the Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors 2010 Study","volume":"9","author":"Cooper","year":"2014","journal-title":"Glob. Heart"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1277","DOI":"10.1002\/ejhf.1738","article-title":"Viral genome search in myocardium of patients with fulminant myocarditis","volume":"22","author":"Veronese","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Heart Fail."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-27631-8","article-title":"Systematic analysis of drug-associated myocarditis reported in the World Health Organization pharmacovigilance database","volume":"13","author":"Nguyen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejphar.2008.06.088","article-title":"Clozapine-induced myocarditis: Role of catecholamines in a murine model","volume":"592","author":"Wang","year":"2008","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2377","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMc1901677","article-title":"Abatacept for Severe Immune Checkpoint Inhibitor\u2013Associated Myocarditis","volume":"380","author":"Salem","year":"2019","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2000","DOI":"10.1002\/ejhf.2669","article-title":"Myocarditis following COVID-19 vaccine: Incidence, presentation, diagnosis, pathophysiology, therapy, and outcomes put into perspective. A clinical consensus document supported by the Heart Failure Association of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) and the ESC Working Group on Myocardial and Pericardial Diseases","volume":"24","author":"Heidecker","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur. J. Heart Fail."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1503","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2003.11.053","article-title":"Smallpox vaccination and myopericarditis: A clinical review","volume":"43","author":"Cassimatis","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.3109\/08916930109007385","article-title":"Cardiac autoantibodies to myosin and other heart-specific autoantigens in myocarditis and dilated cardiomyopathy","volume":"34","author":"Caforio","year":"2001","journal-title":"Autoimmunity"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2146","DOI":"10.1177\/0961203318804889","article-title":"Child-onset systemic lupus erythematosus is associated with a higher incidence of myopericardial manifestations compared to adult-onset disease","volume":"27","author":"Chang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lupus"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.31083\/j.rcm2502037","article-title":"Cardiac Sarcoidosis: A Comprehensive Clinical Review","volume":"25","author":"Vereckei","year":"2024","journal-title":"Rev. Cardiovasc. Med."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hfc.2005.06.016","article-title":"Endomyocardial Biopsy and Natural History of Myocarditis","volume":"1","author":"Narula","year":"2005","journal-title":"Heart Fail. Clin."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schulz-Menger, J., Collini, V., Gr\u00f6schel, J., Adler, Y., Brucato, A., Christian, V., Ferreira, V.M., Gandjbakhch, E., Heidecker, B., and Kerneis, M. (2025). 2025 ESC Guidelines for the management of myocarditis and pericarditis. Eur. Heart J., ehaf192.","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehaf192"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"667","DOI":"10.1016\/j.recesp.2024.02.014","article-title":"Diagnosis and treatment of myocarditis and inflammatory cardiomyopathy. Consensus document of the SEC-Working Group on Myocarditis","volume":"77","author":"Uribarri","year":"2024","journal-title":"Rev. Esp. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2897","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-024-03243-9","article-title":"Artificial intelligence guided screening for cardiomyopathies in an obstetric population: A pragmatic randomized clinical trial","volume":"30","author":"Adedinsewo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mirna, M., Schmutzler, L., Topf, A., Boxhammer, E., Sipos, B., Hoppe, U.C., and Lichtenauer, M. (2022). Treatment with Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs) Does Not Affect Outcome in Patients with Acute Myocarditis or Myopericarditis. J. Cardiovasc. Dev. Dis., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcdd9020032"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1568","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.118.313578","article-title":"Management of Myocarditis-Related Cardiomyopathy in Adults","volume":"124","author":"Cooper","year":"2019","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2636","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/eht210","article-title":"Current state of knowledge on aetiology, diagnosis, management, and therapy of myocarditis: A position statement of the European Society of Cardiology Working Group on Myocardial and Pericardial Diseases","volume":"34","author":"Caforio","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1098","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2023.3371","article-title":"Diagnosis and Treatment of Acute Myocarditis: A Review","volume":"329","author":"Ammirati","year":"2023","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109024","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intimp.2022.109024","article-title":"SGLT2 inhibitor, canagliflozin, ameliorates cardiac inflammation in experimental autoimmune myocarditis","volume":"110","author":"Long","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. Immunopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e001806","DOI":"10.1136\/openhrt-2021-001806","article-title":"Mortality and ventricular arrhythmia after acute myocarditis: A nationwide registry-based follow-up study","volume":"8","author":"Kragholm","year":"2021","journal-title":"Open Heart"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"364","DOI":"10.1097\/FJC.0000000000001542","article-title":"Current Treatment and Immunomodulation Strategies in Acute Myocarditis","volume":"83","author":"Ferone","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ccl.2013.11.002","article-title":"The role of the wearable cardioverter defibrillator in clinical practice","volume":"32","author":"Chung","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cardiol. Clin."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1977","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2017.08.044","article-title":"Cardiac MR with Late Gadolinium Enhancement in Acute Myocarditis with Preserved Systolic Function: ITAMY Study","volume":"70","author":"Aquaro","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2185","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehi411","article-title":"Favourable clinical outcome in patients with cardiogenic shock due to fulminant myocarditis supported by percutaneous extracorporeal membrane oxygenation","volume":"26","author":"Asaumi","year":"2005","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1159\/000073205","article-title":"Human herpesvirus-6: A short review of its biological behavior","volume":"46","author":"Krueger","year":"2003","journal-title":"Intervirology"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"bcr2017224133","DOI":"10.1136\/bcr-2017-224133","article-title":"Successful treatment of fulminant neonatal enteroviral myocarditis in monochorionic diamniotic twins with cardiopulmonary support, intravenous immunoglobulin and pocapavir","volume":"2018","author":"Amdani","year":"2018","journal-title":"BMJ Case Rep."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Manaresi, E., and Gallinella, G. (2019). Advances in the Development of Antiviral Strategies against Parvovirus B19. Viruses, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/v11070659"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"818","DOI":"10.1002\/ehf2.12341","article-title":"Telbivudine in chronic lymphocytic myocarditis and human parvovirus B19 transcriptional activity","volume":"5","author":"Elsanhoury","year":"2018","journal-title":"ESC Heart Fail."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1147","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ahj.2005.07.030","article-title":"Cardiovascular disease in HIV infection","volume":"151","author":"Sudano","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.3947\/ic.2015.47.4.272","article-title":"A Case of Influenza Associated Fulminant Myocarditis Successfully Treated with Intravenous Peramivir","volume":"47","author":"Baik","year":"2015","journal-title":"Infect. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1007\/3-540-30822-9_7","article-title":"Role of hepatitis C virus in cardiomyopathies","volume":"55","author":"Matsumori","year":"2006","journal-title":"Ernst Scher. Res. Found Workshop"},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"1824","article-title":"Pharmacologic Treatments for Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19): A Review","volume":"323","author":"Sanders","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"H69","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpheart.00154.2007","article-title":"Antiviral and myocyte protective effects of murine interferon-\u03b2and -\u03b12 in coxsackievirus B3-induced myocarditis and epicarditis in Balb\/c mice","volume":"293","author":"Wang","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2793","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.0000072766.67150.51","article-title":"Interferon-beta treatment eliminates cardiotropic viruses and improves left ventricular function in patients with myocardial persistence of viral genomes and left ventricular dysfunction","volume":"107","author":"Pauschinger","year":"2003","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"763","DOI":"10.1007\/s00392-016-0986-9","article-title":"Betaferon in chronic viral cardiomyopathy (BICC) trial: Effects of interferon-\u03b2 treatment in patients with chronic viral cardiomyopathy","volume":"105","author":"Schultheiss","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Res. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1995","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehp249","article-title":"Randomized study on the efficacy of immunosuppressive therapy in patients with virus-negative inflammatory cardiomyopathy: The TIMIC study","volume":"30","author":"Frustaci","year":"2009","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grzechoci\u0144ska, J., Tymi\u0144ska, A., Giordani, A.S., Wysi\u0144ska, J., Ostrowska, E., Baritussio, A., Caforio, A.L.P., Grabowski, M., Marcolongo, R., and Oziera\u0144ski, K. (2023). Immunosuppressive Therapy of Biopsy-Proven, Virus-Negative, Autoimmune\/Immune-Mediated Myocarditis\u2014Focus on Azathioprine: A Review of Existing Evidence and Future Perspectives. Biology, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/biology12030356"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.104.1.39","article-title":"Randomized, placebo- controlled study for immunosuppressive treatment of inflammatory dilated cardiomyopathy: Two-year follow-up results","volume":"104","author":"Wojnicz","year":"2001","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.112.969261","article-title":"Diagnosis, treatment, and outcome of giant-cell myocarditis in the era of combined immunosuppression","volume":"6","author":"Kandolin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Circ. Heart Fail."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1860","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199706263362603","article-title":"Idiopathic Giant-Cell Myocarditis\u2014Natural History and Treatment","volume":"336","author":"Cooper","year":"1997","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1007\/s12265-020-10025-4","article-title":"A Toolbox of Potential Immune-Related Therapies for Inflammatory Cardiomyopathy","volume":"14","author":"Elsanhoury","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Cardiovasc. Transl. Res."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"674","DOI":"10.1253\/circj.CJ-22-0696","article-title":"JCS 2023 Guideline on the Diagnosis and Treatment of Myocarditis","volume":"87","author":"Nagai","year":"2023","journal-title":"Circ. J."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"631","DOI":"10.2459\/JCM.0000000000000134","article-title":"Immunosuppressive treatment for myocarditis: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials","volume":"17","author":"Lu","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Cardiovasc. Med."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"573","DOI":"10.1007\/s10741-018-9709-9","article-title":"Immunomodulatory treatment for lymphocytic myocarditis\u2014A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"23","author":"Winter","year":"2018","journal-title":"Heart Fail. Rev."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xing, Q., Zhang, Z., Zhu, B., Lin, Q., Shen, L., Li, F., Xia, Z., and Zhao, Z. (2022). Case Report: Treatment for steroid-refractory immune-related myocarditis with tofacitinib. Front. Immunol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.944013"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Y., Qi, Z., Yan, Z., Ji, N., Yang, X., Gao, D., Hu, L., Lv, H., Zhang, J., and Li, M. (2022). Mesenchymal Stem Cell Immunomodulation: A Novel Intervention Mechanism in Cardiovascular Disease. Front. Cell Dev. Biol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcell.2021.742088"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12817","DOI":"10.2147\/IJN.S487598","article-title":"T Lymphocyte-Macrophage Hybrid Membrane-Coated Biomimetic Nanoparticles Alleviate Myocarditis via Suppressing Pyroptosis by Targeting Gene Silencing","volume":"19","author":"Xiong","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Nanomed."}],"container-title":["Biomolecules"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2218-273X\/15\/10\/1475\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,20]],"date-time":"2025-10-20T09:51:28Z","timestamp":1760953888000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2218-273X\/15\/10\/1475"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,20]]},"references-count":58,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10]]}},"alternative-id":["biom15101475"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/biom15101475","relation":{},"ISSN":["2218-273X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2218-273X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,20]]}}}