{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,4]],"date-time":"2025-11-04T05:33:03Z","timestamp":1762234383015,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":82,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,1]],"date-time":"2025-11-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1761955200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["R01GM114666","T32GM141955"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01GM114666","T32GM141955"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biomolecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Bile acids, the primary components of bile, are cholesterol-derived molecules synthesized in the liver and secreted to the small intestine. Besides their primary digestive roles, bile acids have antimicrobial properties and serve as an environmental cue for intestinal pathogens, modulating the expression of virulence factors, e.g., toxins and effector proteins. Whereas timely recognition and neutralization of pathogenic toxin effectors by the host is critical, our understanding of the effects of bile on their structure and function is limited. In this work, we found that bile effectively protected cultured IEC-18 enterocytes from the mixture of Aeromonas hydrophila secreted toxins, containing hemolysin, aerolysin, and RtxA (MARTX). To explore whether these effects have broad specificity, we employed biochemical and biophysical techniques to test the in vitro effects of bile and bile acids on several effector domains of MARTX and VgrG toxins from Vibrio cholerae and Aeromonas hydrophila, and catalytic domains of TcdA and TcdB toxins from Clostridioides difficile. Bile compromised the structural integrity of the tested effectors to various degrees in a protein charge-dependent manner. Bile and bile acids promoted exposure of hydrophobic residues and the unfolding of most, but not all, of the tested effectors, facilitating their precipitation and cleavage by chymotrypsin. Bile also inhibited specific activities of the tested effector enzymes, partially due to imposed oxidation of their catalytic residues. To summarize, this work validated bile as a non-proteinaceous factor of innate immunity, capable of compromising the structural integrity and function of the effector domains of various bacterial toxins.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/biom15111539","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,3]],"date-time":"2025-11-03T13:47:58Z","timestamp":1762177678000},"page":"1539","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Effects of Bile on Pathogenic Vibrio, Aeromonas, and Clostridioides spp. Toxin Effector Domains"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9455-3578","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jaylen E.","family":"Taylor","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA"},{"name":"The Ohio State Biochemistry Program, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6482-4215","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David B.","family":"Heisler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA"},{"name":"The Ohio State Biochemistry Program, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Eshan","family":"Choudhary","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1646-1229","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elena","family":"Kudryashova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1782-3305","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dmitri S.","family":"Kudryashov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barthold, L., Heber, S., Schmidt, C.Q., Gradl, M., Weidinger, G., Barth, H., and Fischer, S. 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