{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,16]],"date-time":"2026-10-16T16:16:55Z","timestamp":1792167415650,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":150,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,4]],"date-time":"2025-12-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1764806400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biomolecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Chronic infections pose significant clinical challenges due to their persistent nature, heightened resistance to conventional therapies, and association with biofilm formation. Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs), released through a unique form of cell death known as NETosis, serve as an innate immune defense mechanism by trapping and neutralizing pathogens. However, accumulating evidence reveals a complex and paradoxical relationship between NETs and microbial biofilms. While NETs can immobilize and kill planktonic microbes, the extracellular DNA and associated proteins often contribute to biofilm stability, immune evasion, and chronic infection persistence. This review explores the bidirectional interactions between NETosis and biofilm formation, with a focus on their synergistic roles in the pathogenesis of chronic infections such as cystic fibrosis lung disease, diabetic foot ulcers, periodontitis, and implant-associated infections. We outline the molecular mechanisms governing NETosis, the structural and functional dynamics of biofilms, and how these processes intersect to form recalcitrant infection niches. Emerging therapeutic strategies aimed at disrupting this pathogenic interplay including DNase-based treatments, PAD4 inhibitors, and combination therapies are critically evaluated. By illuminating the pathogenic synergy between NETs and biofilms, this review underscores the need for integrated immunomodulatory and anti-biofilm interventions to effectively manage chronic infectious diseases and improve patient outcomes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/biom15121692","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,4]],"date-time":"2025-12-04T13:53:30Z","timestamp":1764856410000},"page":"1692","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["The Relationship Between NETosis and Biofilm Formation in Chronic Infections"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Wafa","family":"Aziz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Pennsylvania State University Hershey Medical Centre, Hershey, PA 17033, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-6116-0057","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hina","family":"Sultana","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Integrative Program for Biological and Genome Sciences, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6751-5741","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vinay","family":"Kumar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Pennsylvania State University Hershey Medical Centre, Hershey, PA 17033, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0576-5526","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anuradha","family":"Tyagi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of cBRN, Institute of Nuclear Medicine & Allied Sciences, Delhi 110054, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cigana, C., Lor\u00e8, N.I., Riva, C., De Fino, I., Spagnuolo, L., Sipione, B., Rossi, G., Nonis, A., Cabrini, G., and Bragonzi, A. 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