{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,8]],"date-time":"2026-09-08T23:23:05Z","timestamp":1788909785902,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":92,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,23]],"date-time":"2026-02-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1771804800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000050","name":"National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["2R15HL143545-02"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2R15HL143545-02"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000050","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biomolecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Staphylococcus epidermidis is more often known as a human skin commensal, serving as a primary protective bacterium on the skin\u2019s surface. However, more recent literature highlights the role of S. epidermidis as a nosocomial pathogen and a multidrug-resistant organism that poses a global threat. The evolution of S. epidermidis can be owed to its accumulation of resistance mechanisms, including adhesion, biofilm formation, genomic islands, phage elements, integrated plasmids, and quorum sensing. It is suspected that through gene transfer, S. epidermidis is partially responsible for the feared multidrug-resistant Staphylococcus aureus through the mecA gene and many other genomic island transfers. Overall, prolonged nosocomial exposure and misuse of antibiotics have driven dramatic genomic remodeling in S. epidermidis, characterized by many methods of genetic recombination, SCCmec and insertion sequence acquisition, and accumulation of multiple resistance genes. Our review reviews the role of S. epidermidis as both a commensal and a pathogenic bacterium, summarizes the genes responsible for its multidrug resistance, and describes methods of combatting its invasion.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/biom16020334","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,23]],"date-time":"2026-02-23T10:00:52Z","timestamp":1771840852000},"page":"334","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["The Evolution of Symbiosis in Staphylococcus epidermidis: From a Protective Mutualist to a Parasitic Pathogen"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Stefanie","family":"Au","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology\/Immunology, College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific, Western University of Health Sciences, 309 E. Second St., Pomona, CA 91766-1854, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"William Dela","family":"Cruz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology\/Immunology, College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific, Western University of Health Sciences, 309 E. Second St., Pomona, CA 91766-1854, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mehzabin","family":"Lala","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology\/Immunology, College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific, Western University of Health Sciences, 309 E. Second St., Pomona, CA 91766-1854, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Srinivasan","family":"Karthikeyan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology\/Immunology, College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific, Western University of Health Sciences, 309 E. Second St., Pomona, CA 91766-1854, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2586-1160","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vishwanath","family":"Venketaraman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology\/Immunology, College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific, Western University of Health Sciences, 309 E. Second St., Pomona, CA 91766-1854, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Janek, D., Zipperer, A., Kulik, A., Krismer, B., and Peschel, A. (2016). High frequency and diversity of antimicrobial activities produced by Nasal staphylococcus strains against bacterial competitors. 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