{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,20]],"date-time":"2026-10-20T06:45:17Z","timestamp":1792478717540,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":178,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,4]],"date-time":"2026-06-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780531200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biomolecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Both the gut and the lungs possess a microbiome, a community of commensal bacteria, archaea, fungi, and viruses that perform important housekeeping functions in those organs. The colonic microbiome primarily ferments indigestible dietary fibers into essential short-chain fatty acids, synthesizes essential vitamins, regulates the mucosal immune system, and forms a protective barrier against pathogenic colonization. The lung microbiome maintains respiratory health primarily by regulating mucosal immunity, providing a physical barrier against invading pathogens, and producing beneficial metabolites. Several colonic microbiota metabolites, including the short-chain fatty acids acetate, propionate, and butyrate, together with the tryptophan metabolites indole-3-acetate and indole-3-propionate, secondary bile acids, and the polyamines spermidine and putrescine, are transported to the lungs via the gut\u2013lung axis. These colonic microbiota biomolecules suppress lung inflammation, strengthen immune homeostasis, and reduce the severity of respiratory diseases. In contrast, lung microorganisms and their metabolites can travel to the gut via the gut\u2013lung axis, influencing intestinal immune responses and potentially leading to an imbalance of gut microorganisms or dysbiosis. This means that respiratory diseases may lead to digestive issues, intestinal inflammation and chronic diseases. Here, we have reviewed this crosstalk and its impact on the principal pulmonary diseases: asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, cystic fibrosis, bronchogenic carcinoma, COVID-19, interstitial lung diseases, pneumonia, and tuberculosis. It is concluded that the gut microbiome plays a significant part in lung health and disease. Diet, tobacco smoking and electronic cigarette vaping all impact both the gut and lung microbiomes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/biom16060833","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,5]],"date-time":"2026-06-05T03:24:33Z","timestamp":1780629873000},"page":"833","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["The Gut\u2013Lung Microbiome Crosstalk and Pulmonary Disease"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9882-5841","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Diren","family":"Beyo\u011flu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Western New England University, Springfield, MA 01119, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6143-1520","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jeffrey R.","family":"Idle","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Western New England University, Springfield, MA 01119, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"fnac022","DOI":"10.1093\/femsle\/fnac022","article-title":"The vanishing link between animalcules and disease before the 19th century","volume":"369","author":"Robertson","year":"2022","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. 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