{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,20]],"date-time":"2026-10-20T16:31:50Z","timestamp":1792513910364,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":372,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,12]],"date-time":"2026-06-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1781222400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biomolecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (mtROS) are central regulators of cellular function, yet their biological roles are often reduced to an oxidative-stress\/antioxidant dichotomy. This review reframes mtROS through the concept of mitohormesis, in which outcomes are neither inherently harmful nor beneficial but are determined by a defined set of contextual variables. We present a mechanistic framework in which mtROS effects depend on chemical species identity, sub-mitochondrial site of production, temporal dynamics, redox-buffering capacity, and metabolic state; together, these variables determine whether mtROS promote adaptive eustress or pathological distress. We then show that, across polyphenols, isothiocyanates, terpenoids, alkaloids, and quinones, the biologically relevant effects of natural redox-modulating compounds are mediated less by direct radical scavenging than by pro-hormetic mechanisms, including mild electron transport chain perturbation, nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2\/Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 (NRF2\/KEAP1) activation, modulation of mitochondrial membrane potential, mitochondrial quality control, and NAD+\/NADPH regulation. Applying this framework to disease reveals strong tissue and state dependence: neurodegeneration favors buffering expansion and mitophagy; metabolic disease may benefit from exercise-mimetic and NRF2-activating strategies; cardiovascular disease illustrates mitohormesis through ischemic preconditioning and CoQ10 supplementation; and cancer requires distinction between prevention and therapy because redox buffering can either protect normal tissue or support tumor survival. Finally, we argue that the failure of non-specific antioxidant supplementation is mechanistically predictable and propose context-aware, biomarker-guided, temporally optimized, and compartment-targeted redox interventions as a more rational translational path.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/biom16060867","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,18]],"date-time":"2026-06-18T00:49:42Z","timestamp":1781743782000},"page":"867","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Tuning the Fire: Context-Dependent Mitochondrial ROS Signaling, Mitohormesis, and Redox-Modulating Interventions"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2299-9471","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Evelina","family":"Charidemou","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Life Sciences, School of Life and Health Sciences, University of Nicosia, Nicosia 2417, Cyprus"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0449-6782","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eleni","family":"Andreou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Life Sciences, School of Life and Health Sciences, University of Nicosia, Nicosia 2417, Cyprus"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4045-8839","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christos","family":"Papaneophytou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Life Sciences, School of Life and Health Sciences, University of Nicosia, Nicosia 2417, Cyprus"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167803","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbadis.2025.167803","article-title":"Mitochondria: An overview of their origin, genome, architecture, and dynamics","volume":"1871","author":"Moura","year":"2025","journal-title":"Biochim. 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