{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,18]],"date-time":"2026-06-18T06:54:16Z","timestamp":1781765656511,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":84,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,18]],"date-time":"2026-06-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1781740800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Miriam and David Endowed Distinguished Professorship","award":["236515"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["236515"]}]},{"name":"Stony Brook Foundation"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biomolecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic immune-mediated disease of the central nervous system characterized by demyelination, neuroinflammation, and progressive neurodegeneration. While there is a small component of genetic susceptibility to MS risk, environmental factors, including infectious exposures, are gaining increased recognition as playing a critical role in MS initiation and progression. Viral infections, especially by Epstein\u2013Barr virus (EBV), have emerged as strong candidates and triggers of MS symptoms, through antibody-mediated molecular mimicry and B-cell dysregulation. In contrast, parasitic infections, including helminths and select protozoa, appear to exert neuroprotective effects by skewing immune responses toward regulation and tolerance. In this review, we examine antibody-driven mechanisms by which viral pathogens promote autoimmunity in MS and contrast these with parasite-induced immunoregulatory pathways that suppress pathogenic inflammation. We further discuss diagnostic and therapeutic implications, highlighting how insights from infectious immunology may inform novel strategies for MS treatment.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/biom16060899","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,18]],"date-time":"2026-06-18T05:52:37Z","timestamp":1781761957000},"page":"899","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Infectious Agents in Multiple Sclerosis: Viral Triggers, Antibody-Mediated Autoimmunity, and Parasitic Immunomodulation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-8699-6813","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dafni F. 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