{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,26]],"date-time":"2026-09-26T13:45:30Z","timestamp":1790430330784,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":268,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,3]],"date-time":"2026-07-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1783036800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biomolecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Fluoroquinolones are broad-spectrum, bactericidal antibacterial agents used in both human and veterinary medicine. Some human-approved drugs are used off label in veterinary medicine while veterinary-approved drugs are not used in humans. Veterinary-approved fluoroquinolones are used on both food and companion animals and against a wide range of clinical indications including infections of the urinary tract, respiratory tract, skin and skin structure, mammary gland and others. Not all veterinary-approved fluoroquinolones have the same clinical indication and it is important to understand these important differences. A recently approved for food animals agent called pradofloxacin is characterized as being dual targeting in that it simultaneously inhibits DNA gyrase (topoisomerase II) and Topoisomerase IV\u2014two enzymes critical for DNA replication. Simultaneous targeting of two enzymes is argued to reduce the likelihood for resistance selection. This article reviews veterinary-approved fluoroquinolones including an overview of the drugs, in vitro activity including bactericidal properties, pharmacokinetic\/pharmacodynamics, antimicrobial resistance, anti-inflammatory properties and clinical trial results. Appropriate use of this important class of antimicrobial agents is essential for clinical success and long-term viability of these compounds.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/biom16070984","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,3]],"date-time":"2026-07-03T15:15:04Z","timestamp":1783091704000},"page":"984","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["A Review of Fluoroquinolones with a Focus on Veterinary-Approved Agents"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3396-0334","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joseph M.","family":"Blondeau","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinical Microbiology, Royal University Hospital and the Saskatchewan Health Authority, Saskatoon, SK S7N 0W8, Canada"},{"name":"Pathology and Laboratory Medicine and Ophthalmology, Departments of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 0W8, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.4236\/ojvm.2016.62006","article-title":"A Review of Enrofloxacin for Veterinary Use","volume":"6","author":"Trouchon","year":"2016","journal-title":"Open J. Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4430","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.molpharmaceut.3c00520","article-title":"Pharmacokinetics in Penguins Compared to Other Avian Species: A Review of Enrofloxacin and Voriconazole","volume":"20","author":"Woods","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mol. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rvsc.2021.04.031","article-title":"Levofloxacin in veterinary medicine: A literature review","volume":"137","author":"Sitovs","year":"2021","journal-title":"Res. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1508","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.14788","article-title":"Ciprofloxacin Pharmacokinetics in Clinical Canine Patients","volume":"31","author":"Papich","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"(2026, May 12). Zoetis Pharmaceuticals. Available online: https:\/\/www.zoetis.com\/."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"(2026, June 01). Elanco Animal Health. Available online: https:\/\/www.elanco.com."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"(2026, May 12). Merck Animal Health. Available online: https:\/\/www.merck-animal-health.com\/."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"1071","article-title":"Drug therapy reviews: Nalidixic acid","volume":"36","author":"Gleckman","year":"1979","journal-title":"Am. J. Hosp. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"544","DOI":"10.2165\/00003495-198325060-00002","article-title":"Cinoxacin: A review of its pharmacological properties and therapeutic efficacy in the treatment of urinary tract infections","volume":"25","author":"Sisca","year":"1983","journal-title":"Drugs"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2011.11.027","article-title":"Bactericidal properties of pradofloxacin against veterinary pathogens","volume":"157","author":"Silley","year":"2012","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkae380","article-title":"Bactericidal versus bacteriostatic antibacterials: Clinical significance, differences and synergistic potential in clinical practice","volume":"80","author":"Ishak","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"a025247","DOI":"10.1101\/cshperspect.a025247","article-title":"\u03b2-Lactams and \u03b2-Lactamase Inhibitors: An Overview","volume":"6","author":"Bush","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Med."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1751-7915.2008.00063.x","article-title":"Mechanism of action of and resistance to quinolones","volume":"2","author":"Madurga","year":"2009","journal-title":"Microb. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Geremia, N., Giovagnorio, F., Colpani, A., De Vito, A., Botan, A., Stroffolini, G., Toc, D.A., Zerbato, V., Principe, L., and Madeddu, G. (2024). Fluoroquinolones and Biofilm: A Narrative Review. Pharmaceuticals, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ph17121673"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1349","DOI":"10.2174\/1568026033452537","article-title":"Fluoroquinolones: Action and resistance","volume":"3","author":"Drlica","year":"2003","journal-title":"Curr. Top. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1281","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.48.4.1281-1288.2004","article-title":"Mycobacterium tuberculosis DNA gyrase: Interaction with quinolones and correlation with antimycobacterial drug activity","volume":"48","author":"Aubry","year":"2004","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6027","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gkab270","article-title":"What makes a type IIA topoisomerase a gyrase or a Topo IV?","volume":"49","author":"Hirsch","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.3109\/10409239109114072","article-title":"DNA gyrase: Structure and function","volume":"26","author":"Reece","year":"1991","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Biochem. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"510","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drudis.2016.11.006","article-title":"DNA topoisomerase I and DNA gyrase as targets for TB therapy","volume":"22","author":"Nagaraja","year":"2017","journal-title":"Drug Discov. Today"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"601","DOI":"10.1080\/14787210.2021.1840353","article-title":"Bacterial death from treatment with fluoroquinolones and other lethal stressors","volume":"19","author":"Drlica","year":"2021","journal-title":"Exp. Rev. Anti Infect. Ther."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"438","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tim.2014.04.007","article-title":"Fluoroquinolone resistance: Mechanisms, impact on bacteria, and role in evolutionary success","volume":"22","author":"Redgrave","year":"2014","journal-title":"Trends Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"627","DOI":"10.1006\/jmbi.1996.0274","article-title":"DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV on the bacterial chromosome: Quinolone-induced DNA cleavage","volume":"258","author":"Chen","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4772","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.74.11.4772","article-title":"Nalidixic acid resistance: A second genetic character involved in DNA gyrase activity","volume":"74","author":"Gellert","year":"1977","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4767","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.74.11.4767","article-title":"Mechanism of action of nalidixic acid: Purification of Escherichia coli nalA gene product and its relationship to DNA gyrase and a novel nicking-closing enzyme","volume":"74","author":"Sugino","year":"1977","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4166","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.49.10.4166-4173.2005","article-title":"Comparative mutant prevention concentrations of pradofloxacin and other veterinary fluoroquinolones indicate differing potentials in preventing selection of resistance","volume":"49","author":"Wetzstein","year":"2005","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3703","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.00237-11","article-title":"Susceptibility of Streptococcus pneumoniae to fluoroquinolones in Canada","volume":"55","author":"Patel","year":"2011","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.47.1.77-81.2003","article-title":"Contribution of the 8-methoxy group to the activity of gatifloxacin against Type II topoisomerase of Streptococcus pneumoniae","volume":"47","author":"Kishii","year":"2003","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3112","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.44.11.3112-3117.2000","article-title":"Potent antipneumococcal activity of gemifloxacin is associated with dual targeting of gyrase and topoisomerase IV, an in vivo target preference for gyrase, and enhanced stabilization of cleavable complexes in vitro","volume":"44","author":"Heaton","year":"2000","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13991","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.94.25.13991","article-title":"DNA topoisomerase targets of the fluoroquinolones: A strategy for avoiding bacterial resistance","volume":"94","author":"Zhao","year":"1997","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"410","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.43.2.410","article-title":"Primary targets of fluoroquinolones in Streptococcus pneumoniae","volume":"43","author":"Fukuda","year":"1999","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2691","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.40.12.2691","article-title":"Activity of the new fluoroquinolone trovafloxacin (CP-99,219) against DNA gyrase and topopisomerase IV mutants of Streptococcus pneumoniae","volume":"40","author":"Gootz","year":"1996","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2760","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.40.12.2760","article-title":"High level fluoroquinolone resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae require mutations in parC and gyrA","volume":"40","author":"Janoir","year":"1996","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2252","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.40.10.2252","article-title":"ParC subunit of DNA topoisomerase IV of Streptococcus pneumoniae is a primary target of fluoroquinolones and cooperates with DNA gyraseA subunit in forming resistant phenotype","volume":"40","author":"Munoz","year":"1997","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2321","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.40.10.2321","article-title":"Involvement of topoisomerase IV and DNA gyrase as ciprofloxacin targets in Streptococcus pneumoniae","volume":"40","author":"Pan","year":"1996","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4060","DOI":"10.1128\/jb.178.14.4060-4069.1996","article-title":"Cloning and characterization of the parC and parE genes of Streptococcus pneumoniae encoding DNA topoisomerase IV: Role in fluoroquinolone resistance","volume":"178","author":"Pan","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1166","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.41.5.1166","article-title":"Characterization of a mutation in the parE gene that confers fluoroquinolone resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae","volume":"41","author":"Perichon","year":"1997","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2502","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.40.11.2505","article-title":"Contribution of mutations in the gyrA and parC genes to fluoroquinolone resistance of mutants of Streptococcus pneumoniae obtained in vivo and in vitro","volume":"40","author":"Tankovic","year":"1996","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"583","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/45.5.583","article-title":"Intracellular targets of moxifloxacin: A comparison with other fluoroquinolones","volume":"45","author":"Pestova","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2810","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.42.11.2810","article-title":"DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV are dual targets of clinafloxacin action in Streptococcus pneumoniae","volume":"42","author":"Pan","year":"1998","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"893","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkf047","article-title":"Dual activity of fluoroquinolones against Streptococcus pneumoniae: The facts behind the claims","volume":"49","author":"Smith","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkg059","article-title":"Dual activity of fluoroquinolones against Streptococcus pneumoniae","volume":"51","author":"Fisher","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"312","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkg329","article-title":"Analysis of dual active fluoroquinolones in Streptococcus pneumoniae","volume":"52","author":"Fisher","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.41.2.471","article-title":"Targeting of DNA gyrase in Streptococcus pneumoniae by sparfloxacin: Selective targeting of gyrase or topoisomerase IV by quinolones","volume":"41","author":"Pan","year":"1997","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"464","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkg060","article-title":"Dual activity of fluoroquinolones against Streptococcus pneumoniae: Reply","volume":"51","author":"Smith","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"680","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.46.3.680-688.2002","article-title":"Fluoroquinolone resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae in United States since 1994\u20131995","volume":"46","author":"Brueggemann","year":"2002","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/S0732-8893(02)00498-4","article-title":"Molecular characterization of fluoroquinolone resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae clinical isolates obtained from across Canada","volume":"45","author":"Zhanel","year":"2003","journal-title":"Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.45.2.433-438.2001","article-title":"Mutant prevention concentrations (MPC) of fluoroquinolones for clinical isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae","volume":"45","author":"Blondeau","year":"2001","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"833","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0907.020589","article-title":"Antimicrobial susceptibility breakpoints and first-step parC mutations in Streptococcus pneumoniae: Redefining fluoroquinolone resistance","volume":"9","author":"Lim","year":"2003","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1949","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.49.5.1949-1956.2005","article-title":"Dual targeting of topoisomerase IV and gyrase to reduce mutant selection: Direct testing of the paradigm by using WCK-1734, a new fluoroquinolone, and ciprofloxacin","volume":"49","author":"Strahilevitz","year":"2005","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2005.07.010","article-title":"Pharmacology of the fluoroquinolones: A perspective for the use in domestic animals","volume":"172","author":"Martinez","year":"2006","journal-title":"Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"797","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(97)07322-4","article-title":"Quinolone resistance from a transferable plasmid","volume":"351","author":"Pascual","year":"1998","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3917","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gkq1296","article-title":"Structural insights into quinolone antibiotic resistance mediated by pentapeptide repeat proteins: Conserved surface loops direct the activity of a Qnr protein from a gram-negative bacterium","volume":"39","author":"Xiong","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2297","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.00147-08","article-title":"qnr Gene nomenclature","volume":"52","author":"Jacoby","year":"2008","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"629","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(06)70599-0","article-title":"The worldwide emergence of plasmid-mediated quinolone resistance","volume":"6","author":"Robicsek","year":"2006","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1370","DOI":"10.1128\/JB.184.5.1370-1377.2002","article-title":"NorA functions as a multidrug efflux protein in both cytoplasmic membrane vesicles and reconstituted proteoliposomes","volume":"184","author":"Yu","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2395","DOI":"10.1128\/JB.187.7.2395-2405.2005","article-title":"MgrA is a multiple regulator of two new efflux pumps in Staphylococcus aureus","volume":"187","author":"Dunman","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1104","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.50.3.1104-1107.2006","article-title":"NorC, a new efflux pump regulated by MgrA of Staphylococcus aureus","volume":"50","author":"Strahilevitz","year":"2006","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1111\/nyas.12830","article-title":"Mechanisms of drug resistance: Quinolone resistance","volume":"1354","author":"Hooper","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00117-14","article-title":"The challenge of efflux-mediated antibiotic resistance in Gram-negative bacteria","volume":"28","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"skad417","DOI":"10.1093\/jas\/skad417","article-title":"Antimicrobial Metaphylaxis and its Impact on Health, Performance, Antimicrobial Resistance, and Contextual Antimicrobial Use in High-Risk Beef Stocker Calves","volume":"102","author":"Credille","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Anim. Sci."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"671","DOI":"10.1128\/MMBR.66.4.671-701.2002","article-title":"Regulation of bacterial drug export systems","volume":"66","author":"Grkovic","year":"2002","journal-title":"Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"Blondeau, J.M. (2011). STAT: Steps to Antimicrobial Therapy: A Guide to Management of Infectious Diseases, North American Compendium Inc.. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263768","DOI":"10.4061\/2011\/263768","article-title":"Antimicrobial use guidelines for treatment of urinary tract disease in dogs and cats: Antimicrobial guidelines working group of the international society for companion animal infectious diseases","volume":"2011","author":"Weese","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vet. Med. Int."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2019.02.008","article-title":"International Society for Companion Animal Infectious Diseases (ISCAID) guidelines for the diagnosis and management of bacterial urinary tract infections in dogs and cats","volume":"247","author":"Weese","year":"2019","journal-title":"Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.14627","article-title":"Antimicrobial use Guidelines for Treatment of Respiratory Tract Disease in Dogs and Cats: Antimicrobial Guidelines Working Group of the International Society for Companion Animal Infectious Diseases","volume":"31","author":"Lappin","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1111\/vde.12118","article-title":"Guidelines for the diagnosis and antimicrobial therapy of canine superficial bacterial folliculitis (Antimicrobial Guidelines Working Group of the International Society for Companion Animal Infectious Diseases)","volume":"25","author":"Hillier","year":"2014","journal-title":"Vet. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1111\/vde.13342","article-title":"Antimicrobial use guidelines for canine pyoderma by the International Society for Companion Animal Infectious Diseases (ISCAID)","volume":"36","author":"Loeffler","year":"2025","journal-title":"Vet. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_68","first-page":"1","article-title":"Community-acquired respiratory tract pathogens and increasing antimicrobial resistance","volume":"4","author":"Blondeau","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1038\/s44259-025-00096-1","article-title":"Antibiotics re-booted-time to kick back against drug resistance","volume":"3","author":"Blaskovich","year":"2025","journal-title":"npj Antimicrob. Resist."},{"key":"ref_70","unstructured":"Gillman, A.G., Goodman, L., Rall, T.W., and Murad, F. (1985). General Principals (Introduction). The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, MacMillan Publishing Company. [7th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11249","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-90647-z","article-title":"Effects of danofloxacin dosing regimen on gastrointestinal pharmacokinetics and fecal microbiome in steers","volume":"11","author":"Halleran","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"775","DOI":"10.1007\/s11259-006-3400-7","article-title":"Pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic modelling of danofloxacin in turkeys","volume":"30","author":"Haritova","year":"2006","journal-title":"Vet. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2885.2000.00285.x","article-title":"Comparison of fluoroquinolone pharmacokinetic parameters after treatment with marbofloxacin, enrofloxacin, and difloxacin in dogs","volume":"23","author":"Frazier","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Vet. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_74","unstructured":"Daube, G. (2009, January 18\u201319). Pharmacokinetics\u2014What you need to know. Proceedings of the 4th International Baytril Symposium, Florence, Italy."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"564","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2885.2007.00914.x","article-title":"Pharmacokinetics and tissue distribution of enrofloxacin and its active metabolite ciprofloxacin in calves","volume":"30","author":"Davis","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Vet. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, B., Liu, S., Cheng, J., Qu, H., Guo, Y., Ji, C., Wang, Y., Zhao, S., Huang, S., and Zhao, L. (2024). Pharmacokinetics of Enrofloxacin in Plasma, Urine, and Feces of Donkey (Equus asinus) after a Single Intragastric Administration. Antibiotics, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics13040355"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.4142\/jvs.2017.18.2.169","article-title":"Tissue distribution of marbofloxacin in pigs after a single intramuscular injection","volume":"18","author":"Yang","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"(2025, February 10). Vetoquinol. Forcyl (Canada). Available online: https:\/\/www.drugs.com\/vet\/forcyl-can.html."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3024","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.01346-08","article-title":"Integration of pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic indices of orbifloxacin in beagle dogs after a single intravenous and intramuscular administration","volume":"53","author":"Gebru","year":"2009","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4219","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2007-0071","article-title":"Pharmacokinetics and milk penetration of orbifloxacin after intravenous, subcutaneous, and intramuscular administration to lactating goats","volume":"90","author":"Escudero","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_81","unstructured":"Ghanshyam, D., Divyesh, K., Madhavi, A., Bhavesh, C., Hitesh, P., and Shailesh, M. (2015). Pharmacokinetics of orbifloxacin in Mehsana goats after intravenous and intramuscular administration. J. Vet. Sci. Technol., 6."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2885.2006.00737.x","article-title":"The pharmacokinetics of orbifloxacin in the horse following oral and intravenous administration","volume":"29","author":"Davis","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Vet. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_83","unstructured":"European Medicines Agency (EMA) (2026, May 12). Veraflox. Available online: https:\/\/www.ema.europa.eu\/en\/medicines\/veterinary\/EPAR\/veraflox."},{"key":"ref_84","first-page":"88","article-title":"Oral bioavailability of pradofloxacin tablets and renal drug excretion in dogs","volume":"26","author":"Fraatz","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Vet. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e17270","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.17270","article-title":"Pharmacokinetics of pradofloxacin, florfenicol, and tulathromycin and response to treatment of steers experimentally infected with Mannheimia hemolytica","volume":"39","author":"Foster","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_86","unstructured":"Elanco Animal Health (2026, May 12). Freedom of Information Summary: Original New Animal Drug Application: Pradalex, Available online: https:\/\/animaldrugsatfda.fda.gov\/adafda\/app\/search\/public\/document\/downloadFoi\/15250."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S39","DOI":"10.1086\/319375","article-title":"What have we learned from pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic theories?","volume":"32","author":"Schentag","year":"2001","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1073","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.37.5.1073","article-title":"Pharmacodynamics of intravenous ciprofloxacin in seriously ill patients","volume":"37","author":"Forrest","year":"1993","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"672","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.43.3.672","article-title":"Pharmacodynamic comparisons of levofloxacin, ciprofloxacin and ampicillin against Streptococcus pneumoniae in an in vitro model of infection","volume":"43","author":"Lacy","year":"1999","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2091","DOI":"10.1086\/323748","article-title":"Fluoroquinolone pharmacodynamics (Correspondence)","volume":"33","author":"Drusano","year":"2001","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2092","DOI":"10.1086\/323751","article-title":"Fluoroquinolone Pharmacodynamics (Reply)","volume":"33","author":"Schentag","year":"2001","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2008.07.019","article-title":"A disease model discriptive of progression between chronic obstructive pulmonary disease exacerbations and community-acquired pneumonia: Roles for underlying lung disease and the pharmacokinetics\/pharmacodynamics of the antibiotic","volume":"33","author":"File","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, L., Xie, H., Wang, Y., Wang, H., Hu, J., and Zhang, G. (2022). Pharmacodynamic Parameters of Pharmacokinetic\/Pharmacodynamic (PK\/PD) Integration Models. Front. Vet. Sci., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2022.860472"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1114","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rvsc.2013.07.019","article-title":"Mutant prevention concentration and PK-PD relationships of enrofloxacin for Pasteurella multocida in buffalo calves","volume":"95","author":"Balaje","year":"2013","journal-title":"Res. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1848","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkx051","article-title":"Revisiting the mutant prevention concentration to guide dosing in childhood tuberculosis","volume":"72","author":"Jaganath","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"864","DOI":"10.1086\/381972","article-title":"Clinical relevance of bacteriostatic versus bactericidal mechanisms of action in the treatment of Gram-positive bacterial infections","volume":"38","author":"Pankey","year":"2004","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"741","DOI":"10.2165\/00003088-200241100-00004","article-title":"Clinical role of protein binding of quinolones","volume":"41","year":"2002","journal-title":"Clin. Pharmacokinet."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6165","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.00951-13","article-title":"Protein binding of \u03b2-lactam antibiotics in critically ill patients: Can we successfully predict unbound concentrations?","volume":"57","author":"Wong","year":"2013","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"616","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkg401","article-title":"Emergence of resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae in an in vitro dynamic model that simulates moxifloxacin concentrations inside and outside the mutant selection window: Related changes in susceptibility, resistance frequency and bacterial killing","volume":"52","author":"Zinner","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2004.02.021","article-title":"Comparison of minimal inhibitory and mutant prevention concentrations of 4 fluoroquinolones against clinical isolates of methicillin-susceptible and resistant Staphylococcus aureus","volume":"24","author":"Metzler","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/1120009X.2004.11782371","article-title":"The role of PK\/PD parameters to avoid selection and increase of resistance: Mutant prevention concentration","volume":"16","author":"Blondeau","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3810","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.01372-06","article-title":"Pharmacodynamic assessment based on mutant prevention concentrations of fluoroquinolones to prevent the emergence of resistant mutants of Streptococcus pneumoniae","volume":"51","author":"Homma","year":"2007","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2409","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.00975-10","article-title":"Mutant prevention concentration-based pharmacokinetic\/pharmacodynamic indices as dosing targets for suppressing the enrichment of levofloxacin-resistant subpopulations of Staphylococcus aureus","volume":"55","author":"Liang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1116","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkl135","article-title":"Selection of ciprofloxacin resistance in Escherichia coli in an in vitro kinetic model: Relation between drug exposure and mutant prevention concentration","volume":"57","author":"Olofsson","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Blondeau, J.M., and Fitch, S.D. (2024). Comparison of the Minimum Inhibitory and Mutant Prevention Drug Concentrations for Pradofloxacin and 7 Other Antimicrobial Agents Tested Against Swine Isolates of Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae and Pasteurella multocida. Molecules, 29.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules29225448"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1512","DOI":"10.1099\/jmm.0.028654-0","article-title":"Mutant-prevention concentration and mechanism of resistance in clinical isolates and enrofloxacin\/marbofloxacin-selected mutants of Escherichia coli of canine origin","volume":"60","author":"Gebru","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_107","first-page":"445","article-title":"Chemotherapeutics: Scientific principles, methods and results","volume":"182","author":"Ehrlich","year":"1913","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1975","DOI":"10.1111\/jgs.14286","article-title":"Constitutional Symptoms Trigger Diagnostic Testing Before Antibiotic Prescribing in High-Risk Nursing Home Residents","volume":"64","author":"Rogers","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Am. Geriatr. Soc."},{"key":"ref_109","unstructured":"Blondeau, J.M., and Borsos, S. (2005, January 16\u201319). Comparative minimum inhibitory and resistance prevention concentrations (RPC) of azithromycin (AZ), clarithromycin (C) and erythromycin (E) against 191 susceptible strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae (SP). Proceedings of the 45th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy (ICAAC), Washington, DC, USA."},{"key":"ref_110","unstructured":"Lorian, V. (1996). In vitro testing: Correlations of bacterial susceptibility, body fluid levels and effectiveness of antibacterial therapy. Antibiotics in Laboratory Medicine, Williams & Wilkins. [4th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.1586\/ecp.12.61","article-title":"Quinolones and where they fit in today\u2019s environment of multidrug-resistant bugs","volume":"5","author":"Blondeau","year":"2012","journal-title":"Exp. Rev. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.1016\/j.it.2012.05.003","article-title":"Antibiotics, microbiota, and immune defense","volume":"33","author":"Ubeda","year":"2012","journal-title":"Trends Immunol."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkg339","article-title":"Pharmacokinetic\/pharmacodynamic relationship of danofloxacin against Mannheimia haemolytica in a tissue-cage model in calves","volume":"52","author":"Greko","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2007.03.017","article-title":"Comparative quantification of the in vitro activity of veterinary fluoroquinolones","volume":"124","author":"Grobbel","year":"2007","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1988","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.43.8.1988","article-title":"Pharmacokinetics of enrofloxacin and danofloxacin in plasma, inflammatory exudate, and bronchial secretions of calves following subcutaneous administration","volume":"43","author":"McKellar","year":"1999","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_116","unstructured":"Pirro, F., Scheer, M., and de Jong, A. (1997, January 5\u20137). Additive in vitro activity of enrofloxacin and its main metabolite ciprofloxacin. Proceedings of the 14th Annual Congress of the European Society of Veterinary Dermatology and the European College of Veterinary Dermatology, Pisa, Italy."},{"key":"ref_117","unstructured":"Blondeau, J.M., Borsos, S., Blondeau, L.D., Blondeau, B.J., and Hesje, C. (2005, January 23\u201326). The killing of clinical isolates of Mannheimia hemolytica (MH) by enrofloxacin (ENR) using minimum inhibitory and mutant prevention drug concentrations and over a range of bacterial inocula. Proceedings of the ASM Conference on Pasteurellaceae, Kohala Coast, Big Island, HI, USA."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"484","DOI":"10.1179\/joc.2005.17.5.484","article-title":"Comparison of the minimum inhibitory, mutant prevention and minimum bactericidal concentrations of ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin and garenoxacin against enteric gram-negative urinary tract infection pathogens","volume":"17","author":"Hansen","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2012.05.006","article-title":"Comparative minimum inhibitory and mutant prevention drug concentrations of enrofloxacin, ceftiofur, florfenicol, tilmicosin and tulathromycin against bovine isolates of Mannheimia haemolytica","volume":"160","author":"Blondeau","year":"2012","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_120","unstructured":"Blondeau, J.M., Borsos, S., Blondeau, L.D., Blondeau, B.J., and Hesje, C. (2005, January 23\u201326). Comparative minimum inhibitory concentration of enrofloxacin against clinical isolates of Pasteurella multocida (MH) and Mannheimia hemolytica (MH). Proceedings of the ASM Conference on Pasteurellaece, Kohala Coast, Big Island, HI, USA."},{"key":"ref_121","unstructured":"Blondeau, J.M., Borsos, S., Hesje, C., Blondeau, L.D., and Blondeau, B.J. (2007, January 23\u201325). Comparative minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and mutant prevention concentration (MPC) values of enrofloxacin, florfenicol, tilmicosin and tulathromycin against Mannheimia haemolytica (MH) isolates collected from cattle with bovine respiratory disease. Proceedings of the International Meeting of Emerging Diseases and Surveillance (IMED), Vienna, Austria."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Blondeau, J.M., and Fitch, S.D. (2019). Mutant prevention and minimum inhibitory concentration drug values for enrofloxacin, ceftiofur, florfenicol, tilmicosin and tulathromycin tested against swine pathogens Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae, Pasteurella multocida and Streptococcus suis. PLoS ONE, 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0210154"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2149","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.00019-08","article-title":"Activity of pradofloxacin against Porphyromonas and Prevotella spp. implicated in periodontal disease in dogs: Susceptibility test data from a European Multicenter study","volume":"52","author":"Stephan","year":"2008","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"747","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa012122","article-title":"Resistance to levofloxacin and failure of treatment of pneumococcal pneumonia","volume":"346","author":"Davidson","year":"2002","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Andersson, D.I., and Hughes, D. (2017). Selection and Transmission of Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria. Microbiol. Spectr., 5.","DOI":"10.1128\/microbiolspec.MTBP-0013-2016"},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"631","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dks461","article-title":"Minimal inhibitory and mutant prevention concentrations for azithromycin, clarithromycin and erythromycin with clinical isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae","volume":"68","author":"Metzler","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106433","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2025.106433","article-title":"Antimicrobial use practices among companion animal veterinarians in Hong Kong","volume":"314","author":"Karalliu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"549","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3476(76)80003-0","article-title":"Concentrations of bacteria in cerebrospinal fluid of patients with bacterial meningitis","volume":"88","author":"Feldman","year":"1976","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.76.6.505","article-title":"The specific polysaccharide content of pneumonic lungs","volume":"76","author":"Frisch","year":"1942","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_130","unstructured":"McVey, D.S., and Kuszak, J. (2010, January 4\u20135). Bacterial isolates from the lungs of beef calves with bronchopneumonia associated with acute bovine respiratory disease. Proceedings of the Conference on Research Workers in Animal Diseases (CRWAD), Chicago, IL, USA."},{"key":"ref_131","first-page":"56","article-title":"Asymptomatic infections of the urinary tract","volume":"69","author":"Kass","year":"1956","journal-title":"Trans. Assoc. Am. Physicians"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"420","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-5347(05)64650-2","article-title":"Asymptomatic infections of the urinary tract","volume":"168","author":"Kass","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Urol."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2008-1455","article-title":"Redefining urinary tract infections by bacterial colony counts","volume":"125","author":"Coulthard","year":"2010","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"561","DOI":"10.1086\/338571","article-title":"Restricting the selection of antibiotic-resistant mutant bacteria: Measurement and potential use of the mutant selection window","volume":"185","author":"Zhao","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1639","DOI":"10.1007\/s00467-019-04283-x","article-title":"Defining urinary tract infection by bacterial colony counts: A case for 100,000 colonies\/ml as the best threshold","volume":"34","author":"Coulthard","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pediatr. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1177\/230949900000800202","article-title":"Bacterial load in tissues and its predictive value for infection in open fractures","volume":"8","author":"Sen","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Orthop. Surg."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1444","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.16456","article-title":"Association between quantitative bacterial culture of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and antibiotic requirement in dogs with lower respiratory tract signs","volume":"36","author":"Lebastard","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"743","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.15048","article-title":"Effects of Diagnostic Work-Up on Medical Decision-Making for Canine Urinary Tract Infection: An Observational Study in Danish Small Animal Practices","volume":"32","author":"Sorensen","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"594","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2014.12.034","article-title":"Killing of Streptococcus pneumoniae by azithromycin, clarithromycin, erythromycin, telithromycin and gemifloxacin using drug minimum inhibitory concentrations and mutant prevention concentrations","volume":"45","author":"Blondeau","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Blondeau, J.M., and Fitch, S.D. (2025). Effects of Comparative Killing by Pradofloxacin and Seven Other Antimicrobials Against Varying Bacterial Densities of Swine Isolates of Pasteurella multocida. Microorganisms, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms13020221"},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1004","DOI":"10.1164\/ajrccm\/142.5.1004","article-title":"Characterization of distal bronchial microflora during acute exacerbation of chronic bronchitis. Use of the protected specimen brush technique in 54 mechanically ventilated patients","volume":"142","author":"Fagon","year":"1990","journal-title":"Am. Rev. Respir. Dis."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01968060","article-title":"Bacterial counts in cerebrospinal fluid of children with meningitis","volume":"9","author":"Bingen","year":"1990","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20180094","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2018.0094","article-title":"The effect of bacterial mutation rate on the evolution of CRISPR-Cas adaptive immunity","volume":"374","author":"Chevallereau","year":"2019","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B. Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-3164.2009.00856.x","article-title":"New concepts in antimicrobial susceptibility testing: The mutant prevention concentration and mutant selection window approach","volume":"20","author":"Blondeau","year":"2009","journal-title":"Vet. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, Z., Mao, C., Wei, Y., Gu, X., Cai, Q., Shen, X., and Ding, H. (2020). Analysis of the mutant selection window and killing of Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae for doxycycline, tylosin, danofloxacin, tiamulin, and valnemulin. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0220350"},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S147","DOI":"10.1086\/321841","article-title":"Restricting the selection of antibiotic-resistant mutants: A general strategy derived from fluoroquinolone studies","volume":"33","author":"Zhao","year":"2001","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_147","first-page":"29","article-title":"Strategies to minimize the development of antibiotic resistance","volume":"9","author":"Baquero","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_148","first-page":"93","article-title":"The antibiotic selective process: Concentration-specific amplification of low-level resistant populations","volume":"207","author":"Baquero","year":"1997","journal-title":"Ciba Found. Study Group"},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1604","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.47.5.1604-1613.2003","article-title":"In vitro pharmacodynamic evaluation of the mutant selection window hypothesis: Four fluoroquinolones against Staphylococcus aureus","volume":"47","author":"Firsov","year":"2003","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, L., Wang, H., Bai, Y., Wang, L., Bai, Y., and Hu, J. (2023). Evaluation of the mutant selection window of danofloxacin against Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae in an in vitro dynamic model. Front. Vet. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2023.1107608"},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"440","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.47.1.440-441.2003","article-title":"Mutant prevention concentration of gemifloxacin for clinical isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae","volume":"47","author":"Hansen","year":"2003","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2005.10.005","article-title":"Mutant prevention concentration for ciprofloxacin and levofloxacin with Pseudomonas Aeruginosa","volume":"27","author":"Hansen","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"ref_153","unstructured":"Metzler, K.L., Borsos, S., Hansen, G., and Blondeau, J.M. (2002, January 16\u201319). Determination of the mutant prevention concentration (MPC) for several antimicrobial agents (AA) against clinical isolates of Staphylococcus aureus (SA). Proceedings of the Canadian Microb iology Association, Saskatoon, SK, Canada."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267-e63","DOI":"10.1111\/vde.12334","article-title":"Comparative in vitro killing of canine strains of Staphylococcus pseudintermedius and Escherichia coli by cefovecin, cefazolin, doxycycline and pradofloxacin","volume":"27","author":"Blondeau","year":"2016","journal-title":"Vet. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1288","DOI":"10.1086\/429242","article-title":"Predicting antimicrobial resistance in invasive pneumococcal infections","volume":"40","author":"Vanderkooi","year":"2005","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1323","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkg255","article-title":"Stretching the mutant prevention concentration (MPC) beyond its limits","volume":"51","author":"Smith","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1345\/aph.1M344","article-title":"Increased clinical failures when treating acute otitis media with macrolides: A meta-analysis","volume":"44","author":"Courter","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ann. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1093\/pch\/21.1.39","article-title":"Management of acute otitis media in children six months of age and older","volume":"21","author":"Robinson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Paediatr. Child Health"},{"key":"ref_159","first-page":"567","article-title":"A survey of urinary-tract infection in a general practice","volume":"204","author":"Grob","year":"1970","journal-title":"Practitioner"},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S40","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2007.07.040","article-title":"Short-term therapy for urinary tract infection: Success and failure","volume":"31","author":"Nicolle","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1080\/02813430601183074","article-title":"Clinical and bacteriological outcome of different doses and duration of pivmecillinam compared with placebo therapy of uncomplicated lower urinary tract infection in women: The LUTIW project","volume":"25","author":"Ferry","year":"2007","journal-title":"Scand. J. Prim. Health Care"},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/47.2.129","article-title":"Evidence to support the rationale that bacterial eradication in respiratory tract infection is an important aim of antimicrobial therapy","volume":"47","author":"Dagan","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105077","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmicom.2025.105077","article-title":"Are bactericidal antibiotics necessary to effectively treat bloodstream infections?","volume":"2","author":"Pulikeyil","year":"2025","journal-title":"CMI Commun."},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"860","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.76.10.860","article-title":"Bactericidal effects of various concentrations of enrofloxacin, florfenicol, tilmicosin phosphate, and tulathromycin on clinical isolates of Mannheimia haemolytica","volume":"76","author":"Blondeau","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am. J. Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Blondeau, J.M., and Fitch, S.D. (2021). In Vitro Killing of Canine Urinary Tract Infection Pathogens by Ampicillin, Cephalexin, Marbofloxacin, Pradofloxacin, and Trimethoprim\/Sulfamethoxazole. Microorganisms, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms9112279"},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"999","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkm346","article-title":"Comparative activity of pradofloxacin against anaerobic bacteria isolated from dogs and cats","volume":"60","author":"Silley","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Azzariti, S., Mead, A., Toutain, P.L., Bond, R., and Pelligand, L. (2023). Time-Kill Analysis of Canine Skin Pathogens: A Comparison of Pradofloxacin and Marbofloxacin. Antibiotics, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics12101548"},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Blondeau, J.M., and Fitch, S.D. (2025). Bactericidal Activity of Pradofloxacin and Other Antimicrobials Against Swine Respiratory Bacterial Pathogens. Pathogens, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens14111171"},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Blondeau, J.M., and Fitch, S.D. (2025). Comparative In Vitro Killing of Key Bovine Respiratory Bacterial Pathogens by Pradofloxacin and Eight Other Veterinary Antimicrobial Agents. Microorganisms, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms13122681"},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"dlad005","DOI":"10.1093\/jacamr\/dlad005","article-title":"Optimizing patient recruitment into clinical trials of antimicrobial-resistant pathogens","volume":"5","author":"Paul","year":"2023","journal-title":"JAC-Antimicrob. Resist."},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(03)00658-3","article-title":"Immunomodulatory effects of quinolones","volume":"3","author":"Dalhoff","year":"2003","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1186\/1476-9255-5-11","article-title":"Anti-inflammatory effects of ciprofloxacin in S. aureus Newman induced nasal inflammation in vitro","volume":"5","author":"Sachse","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Inflamm."},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-019-1538-9","article-title":"Ciprofloxacin and levofloxacin attenuate microglia inflammatory response via TLR4\/NF-kB pathway","volume":"16","author":"Zusso","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Neuroinflammation"},{"key":"ref_174","first-page":"9","article-title":"Therapeutic Effect of the Quinolone Levofloxacin on Inflammatory Fibroblast-like Synoviocytes","volume":"49","author":"Liu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ann. Clin. Lab. Sci."},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1007","DOI":"10.1080\/08820139.2020.1797778","article-title":"A Review of Immunomodulatory Effects of Fluoroquinolones","volume":"50","author":"Assar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Immunol. Investig."},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"555","DOI":"10.56093\/ijans.v92i5.112830","article-title":"Immunological effect of sparfloxacin in goats","volume":"92","author":"Singh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Indian J. Anim. Sci."},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1574-695X.2010.00755.x","article-title":"Levofloxacin reduces inflammatory cytokine levels in human bronchial epithelia cells: Implications for aerosol MP-376 (levofloxacin solution for inhalation) treatment of chronic pulmonary infections","volume":"61","author":"Tsivkovskii","year":"2011","journal-title":"FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1515\/bvip-2015-0042","article-title":"Effect of therapeutic doses of enrofloxacin on circulating lymphocyte subpopulations in pigs","volume":"59","author":"Pejsak","year":"2015","journal-title":"Bull.-Vet. Inst. Pulawy"},{"key":"ref_179","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"889","DOI":"10.5713\/ajas.2003.889","article-title":"Immunomodulatory and Therapeutic Potential of Enrofloxacin in Bovine Sub Clinical Mastitis","volume":"16","author":"Mukherjee","year":"2003","journal-title":"Asian-Australas. J. Anim. Sci."},{"key":"ref_180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1469-0691.2002.00374.x","article-title":"Effect of moxifloxacin on secretion of cytokines by human monocytes stimulated with lipopolysaccharide","volume":"8","author":"Araujo","year":"2002","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_181","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Velho, T.R., Raquel, H., Figueiredo, N., Neves-Costa, A., Pedroso, D., Santos, I., Willmann, K., and Moita, L.F. (2024). Immunomodulatory Effects and Protection in Sepsis by the Antibiotic Moxifloxacin. Antibiotics, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics13080742"},{"key":"ref_182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rvsc.2016.11.005","article-title":"The regulation effects of danofloxacin on pig immune stress induced by LPS","volume":"110","author":"Yao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Res. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_183","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2885.2003.00477.x","article-title":"The effects of danofloxacin and tilmicosin on neutrophil function and lung consolidation in beef heifer calves with induced Pasteurella (Mannheimia) haemolytica pneumonia","volume":"26","author":"Fajt","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Vet. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_184","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1292\/jvms.14-0336","article-title":"Effects of pre-shipping marbofloxacin administration on fever and blood properties in healthy Thoroughbreds transported a long distance","volume":"77","author":"Endo","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Vet. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_185","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yudhawati, R., and Wicaksono, N.F. (2024). Immunomodulatory Effects of Fluoroquinolones in Community-Acquired Pneumonia-Associated Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome. Biomedicines, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines12040761"},{"key":"ref_186","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S11","DOI":"10.1155\/S0962935193000687","article-title":"Bacterial endotoxins: Biological properties and mechanisms of action","volume":"2","author":"Galanos","year":"1993","journal-title":"Mediat. Inflamm."},{"key":"ref_187","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bjae.2022.01.003","article-title":"Bacterial endotoxins and exotoxins in intensive care medicine","volume":"22","author":"Sheehan","year":"2022","journal-title":"BJA Educ."},{"key":"ref_188","first-page":"167","article-title":"Bacterial lipopolysaccharides and innate immunity","volume":"7","author":"Alexander","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Endotoxin Res."},{"key":"ref_189","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1201","DOI":"10.2741\/1304","article-title":"NF-kappaB action in sepsis: The innate immune system and the heart","volume":"9","author":"Brown","year":"2004","journal-title":"Front. Biosci."},{"key":"ref_190","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jarczak, D., and Nierhaus, A. (2022). Cytokine Storm-Definition, Causes, and Implications. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms231911740"},{"key":"ref_191","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1179\/joc.2001.13.Supplement-2.159","article-title":"Antibiotic induced endotoxin release and clinical sepsis: A review","volume":"13","author":"Holzheimer","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_192","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"646","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-020-03303-9","article-title":"Mode of bacterial killing affects the inflammatory response and associated organ dysfunctions in a porcine E. coli intensive care sepsis model","volume":"24","author":"Skorup","year":"2020","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_193","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1469-0691.2000.00025.x","article-title":"Endotoxin release from Escherichia coli after exposure to tobramycin: Dose-dependency and reduction in cefuroxime-induced endotoxin release","volume":"6","author":"Goscinski","year":"2000","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_194","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1034\/j.1600-0609.2001.066005287.x","article-title":"Immunomodulatory effects of moxifloxacin in comparison to ciprofloxacin and G-CSF in a murine model of cyclophosphamide-induced leukopenia","volume":"66","author":"Shalit","year":"2001","journal-title":"Eur. J. Haematol."},{"key":"ref_195","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.femsim.2005.01.001","article-title":"Minimizing the release of proinflammatory and toxic bacterial products within the host: A promising approach to improve outcome in life-threatening infections","volume":"44","author":"Nau","year":"2005","journal-title":"FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_196","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268800048421","article-title":"Effect of penicillin and chloramphenicol on the growth and endotoxin release by N. Meningitidis","volume":"106","author":"Mellado","year":"1991","journal-title":"Epidemiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_197","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"745","DOI":"10.3109\/00365549109024303","article-title":"Effects of different types and combinations of antimicrobial agents on endotoxin release from gram-negative bacteria: An in-vitro and in-vivo study","volume":"23","author":"Dofferhoff","year":"1991","journal-title":"Scand. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_198","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1033","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/165.6.1033","article-title":"beta-Lactam antibiotic-induced release of free endotoxin: In vitro comparison of penicillin-binding protein (PBP) 2-specific imipenem and PBP 3-specific ceftazidime","volume":"165","author":"Jackson","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_199","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1012","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/151.6.1012","article-title":"Role of antibiotic class in the rate of liberation of endotoxin during therapy for experimental gram-negative bacterial sepsis","volume":"151","author":"Shenep","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_200","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"615","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/40.5.615","article-title":"Natural release of virulence factors in membrane vesicles by Pseudomonas aeruginosa and the effect of aminoglycoside antibiotics on their release","volume":"40","author":"Kadurugamuwa","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_201","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2752","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.39.12.2752","article-title":"Antibacterial action of ciprofloxacin","volume":"39","author":"Mason","year":"1995","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_202","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2793","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.48.8.2793-2798.2004","article-title":"Comparative effects of ciprofloxacin and ceftazidime on cytokine production in patients with severe sepsis caused by gram-negative bacteria","volume":"48","author":"Gogos","year":"2004","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_203","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkf091","article-title":"Effect of ciprofloxacin on lethal and sublethal challenge with endotoxin and on early cytokine responses in a murine in vivo model","volume":"50","author":"Purswani","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_204","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1211","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.38.6.1211","article-title":"Clinical relevance of antibiotic-induced endotoxin release","volume":"38","author":"Prins","year":"1994","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_205","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"344","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-9343(80)90102-3","article-title":"Gram-negative bacteremia. IV. Re-evaluation of clinical features and treatment in 612 patients","volume":"68","author":"Kreger","year":"1980","journal-title":"Am. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_206","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/41.2.163","article-title":"Antibiotic-induced release of endotoxin: In-vitro comparison of meropenem and other antibiotics","volume":"41","author":"Trautmann","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_207","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3169","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.44.11.3169-3173.2000","article-title":"Protection against lipopolysaccharide-induced death by fluoroquinolones","volume":"44","author":"Khan","year":"2000","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_208","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"410","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1439-0442.2006.00854.x","article-title":"Influence of Escherichia coli Endotoxin-Induced Endotoxaemia on the Pharmacokinetics of Enrofloxacin after Intravenous Administration in Rabbits","volume":"53","author":"Elmas","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Vet. Med. Ser. A"},{"key":"ref_209","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1007\/PL00000293","article-title":"Effect of enrofloxacin treatment on plasma endotoxin during bovine Escherichia coli mastitis","volume":"51","author":"Dosogne","year":"2002","journal-title":"Inflamm. Res."},{"key":"ref_210","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"889","DOI":"10.1124\/jpet.102.042416","article-title":"The effect of endotoxin and dexamethasone on enrofloxacin pharmacokinetic parameters in swine","volume":"304","author":"Post","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther."},{"key":"ref_211","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"697","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cvfa.2005.07.001","article-title":"Respiratory emergencies in cattle","volume":"21","author":"Peek","year":"2005","journal-title":"Vet. Clin. North Am. Food Anim. Pract."},{"key":"ref_212","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cvfa.2006.03.009","article-title":"Bovine respiratory disease: Pathogenesis, clinical signs, and treatment in lightweight calves","volume":"22","author":"Apley","year":"2006","journal-title":"Vet. Clin. North Am. Food Anim. Pract."},{"key":"ref_213","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1177\/10406387231210489","article-title":"An overview of the detection of bovine respiratory disease complex pathogens using immunohistochemistry: Emerging trends and opportunities","volume":"36","author":"Werid","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Vet. Diagn. Investig."},{"key":"ref_214","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Valeris-Chacin, R., Powledge, S., McAtee, T., Morley, P.S., and Richeson, J. (2022). Mycoplasma bovis is associated with Mannheimia haemolytica during acute bovine respiratory disease in feedlot cattle. Front. Microbiol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2022.946792"},{"key":"ref_215","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1136\/vr.f469","article-title":"Chlamydia in cases of cattle pneumonia in Scotland","volume":"172","author":"Wheelhouse","year":"2013","journal-title":"Vet. Rec."},{"key":"ref_216","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"708","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.81.9.708","article-title":"Pharmacokinetics of danofloxacin following intramuscular administration of a single dose in koi (Cyprinus carpio)","volume":"81","author":"Siniard","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_217","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3013","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.46.9.3013-3019.2002","article-title":"Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic profiles of danofloxacin administered by two dosing regimens in calves infected with Mannheimia (Pasteurella) haemolytica","volume":"46","author":"Sarasola","year":"2002","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_218","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"585","DOI":"10.1136\/vr.154.19.585","article-title":"Efficacy of danofloxacin in the treatment of respiratory disease in European cattle","volume":"154","author":"Rowan","year":"2004","journal-title":"Vet. Rec."},{"key":"ref_219","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1590\/1808-1657v69n4p0072002","article-title":"Clinical efficacy of danofloxacin 18% in the treatment of naturally occurring infectious diseases in cattle","volume":"69","author":"Caproni","year":"2002","journal-title":"Arq. Inst. Biol."},{"key":"ref_220","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-5288(02)00186-8","article-title":"Efficacy of danofloxacin 18% injectable solution in the treatment of Escherichia coli diarrhoea in young calves in Europe","volume":"74","author":"Sunderland","year":"2003","journal-title":"Res. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_221","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"506","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1939-1676.2012.00914.x","article-title":"Evaluation of the efficacy and safety of high dose short duration enrofloxacin treatment regimen for uncomplicated urinary tract infections in dogs","volume":"26","author":"Westropp","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_222","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-3164.1990.tb00090.x","article-title":"Efficacy of enrofloxacin in the treatment of canine pyoderma","volume":"1","author":"Paradis","year":"1990","journal-title":"Vet. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_223","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gutierrez, L., Tapia, G., Ocampo, L., Monroy-Barreto, M., and Sumano, H. (2020). Oral Plus Topical Administration of Enrofloxacin-Hydrochloride-Dihydrate for the Treatment of Unresponsive Canine Pyoderma. A clinical trial. Animals, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani10060943"},{"key":"ref_224","first-page":"108","article-title":"Efficacy of enrofloxacin in the treatment of recurrent pyoderma in dogs","volume":"4","author":"Reddy","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Adv. Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_225","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gutierrez, L., Mendoza, J., Rangel, A.B., Tapia, G., Bernad, M.J., and Sumano, H. (2019). Outpatient Clinical Trial in Dogs With Leptospirosis Treated With Enrofloxacin Hydrochloride-Dihydrate (ENRO-C). Front. Vet. Sci., 6.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2019.00360"},{"key":"ref_226","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2885.2004.00561.x","article-title":"Treatment of canine pyoderma with ibafloxacin and marbofloxacin\u2014Fluoroquinolones with different pharmacokinetic profiles","volume":"27","author":"Horspool","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Vet. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_227","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-3164.2001.00195.x","article-title":"Evaluation of the clinical efficacy of marbofloxacin (Zeniquin) tablets for the treatment of canine pyoderma: An open clinical trial","volume":"12","author":"Paradis","year":"2001","journal-title":"Vet. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_228","first-page":"549","article-title":"E Clinical efficacy of marbofloxacin in dogs and cats diagnosed with lower urinary tract disorders","volume":"75","author":"Celik","year":"2019","journal-title":"Med. Weter."},{"key":"ref_229","first-page":"999","article-title":"Efficacy of orbifloxacin tablets for the treatment of superficial and deep pyoderma due to Staphylococcus intermedius infection in dogs","volume":"47","author":"Scott","year":"2006","journal-title":"Can. Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_230","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-3164.2007.00584.x","article-title":"Pradofloxacin in the treatment of canine deep pyoderma: A multicentred, blinded, randomized parallel trial","volume":"18","author":"Mueller","year":"2007","journal-title":"Vet. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_231","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.5326\/0460301","article-title":"Evaluation of the clinical efficacy of pradofloxacin tablets for the treatment of canine pyoderma","volume":"46","author":"Restrepo","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Am. Anim. Hosp. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_232","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"990","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1939-1676.2007.tb03054.x","article-title":"Clinical efficacy and palatability of pradofloxacin 2.5% oral suspension for the treatment of bacterial lower urinary tract infections in cats","volume":"21","author":"Litster","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_233","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"472","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfms.2008.04.003","article-title":"Evaluation of pradofloxacin for the treatment of feline rhinitis","volume":"10","author":"Spindel","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Feline Med. Surg."},{"key":"ref_234","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2011.08.015","article-title":"In vitro killing of Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus pseudintermedius and Pseudomonas aeruginosa by enrofloxacin in combination with its active metabolite ciprofloxacin using clinically relevant drug concentrations in the dog and cat","volume":"155","author":"Blondeau","year":"2012","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_235","unstructured":"Richez, P., Dellac, B., Froyman, R., and De Jong, A. (1994, January 7\u201311). Pharmacokinetics of enrofloxacin in calves and adult cattle after single and repeated subcutaneous injections. Proceedings of the 6th International Congress of European Association for Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Edinburgh, UK."},{"key":"ref_236","first-page":"22","article-title":"Plasma pharmacokinetics of enrofloxacin administered to cattle at a dose of 7.5 mg\/kg","volume":"20","author":"Stegemann","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Vet. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_237","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1573","DOI":"10.1016\/j.theriogenology.2006.01.034","article-title":"Use of enrofloxacin in the treatment of canine brucellosis in a dog kennel (clinical trial)","volume":"66","author":"Wanke","year":"2006","journal-title":"Theriogenology"},{"key":"ref_238","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1033","DOI":"10.1111\/asj.13025","article-title":"Randomized clinical trial to evaluate the effectiveness of enrofloxacin as a second-line antibiotic for treatment of acute Escherichia coli mastitis","volume":"89","author":"Shinozuka","year":"2018","journal-title":"Anim. Sci. J."},{"key":"ref_239","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01907139","article-title":"Problems of livestock development in the Himalayan region","volume":"14","author":"Biswas","year":"1994","journal-title":"Environmentalist"},{"key":"ref_240","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kaler, J., Wani, S.A., Hussain, I., Beg, S.A., Makhdoomi, M., Kabli, Z.A., and Green, L.E. (2012). A clinical trial comparing parenteral oxytetracyline and enrofloxacin on time to recovery in sheep lame with acute or chronic footrot in Kashmir, India. BMC Vet. Res., 8.","DOI":"10.1186\/1746-6148-8-12"},{"key":"ref_241","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1186\/s40813-017-0057-2","article-title":"Randomised controlled field study to evaluate the efficacy and clinical safety of a single 8 mg\/kg injectable dose of marbofloxacin compared with one or two doses of 7.5 mg\/kg injectable enrofloxacin for the treatment of Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae infections in growing-fattening pigs in Europe","volume":"3","author":"Grandemange","year":"2017","journal-title":"Porc. Health Manag."},{"key":"ref_242","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.17221\/23\/2016-VETMED","article-title":"Efficacy of single-dose ceftriaxone versus multiple-dose enrofloxacin in dogs with uncomplicated lower urinary tract infection: A randomised clinical trial","volume":"62","author":"Colakoglu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref_243","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meier, K.K., Stock, A., Merle, R., Arndt, H., Dachrodt, L., Hoedemaker, M., Kellermann, L., Knubben-Schweizer, G., Volkmann, M., and M\u00fcller, K.E. (2024). Risk factors for omphalitis in neonatal dairy calves. Front. Vet. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2024.1480851"},{"key":"ref_244","first-page":"19","article-title":"The use of enrofloxacin-alginate gel to prevent newborn calves\u2019 navels infection","volume":"9","author":"Tapia","year":"2022","journal-title":"Vet. M\u00e9xico OA"},{"key":"ref_245","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.S0022-0302(04)73159-8","article-title":"Pharmacokinetics of marbofloxacin in lactating cows after repeated intramuscular administrations and pharmacodynamics against mastitis isolated strains","volume":"87","author":"Schneider","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_246","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"398","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rvsc.2006.10.001","article-title":"Comparative pharmacokinetics of marbofloxacin in healthy and Mannheimia haemolytica infected calves","volume":"82","author":"Ismail","year":"2007","journal-title":"Res. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_247","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.21708\/avb.2022.16.4.10983","article-title":"Therapeutic efficacy of marbofloxacin and ceftiofur in feedlot steers with bovine respiratory disease complex","volume":"16","author":"Lapczak","year":"2022","journal-title":"Acta Vet. Bras."},{"key":"ref_248","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lhermie, G., Toutain, P.L., El Garch, F., Bousquet-M\u00e9lou, A., and Assi\u00e9, S. (2017). Implementing Precision Antimicrobial Therapy for the Treatment of Bovine Respiratory Disease: Current Limitations and Perspectives. Front. Vet. Sci., 4.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2017.00143"},{"key":"ref_249","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2885.2001.00333.x","article-title":"A field comparison of the efficacy and tolerance of marbofloxacin in the treatment of bovine respiratory disease","volume":"24","author":"Thomas","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Vet. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_250","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187-e39","DOI":"10.1111\/vde.12835","article-title":"In vitro killing of canine strains of Staphylococcus pseudintermedius and Escherichia coli by cefazolin, cefovecin, doxycycline and pradofloxacin over a range of bacterial densities","volume":"31","author":"Blondeau","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vet. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_251","unstructured":"Bonagura, J.D. (2000). Bacterial urinary tract infection in cats. Kirk\u2019s Current Veterinary Therapy XIII: Small Animal Practice, W. B. Saunders."},{"key":"ref_252","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.70.1.105","article-title":"Use of pradofloxacin to treat experimentally induced Mycoplasma hemofelis infection in cats","volume":"70","author":"Dowers","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_253","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1939-1676.2007.0012.x","article-title":"Efficacy of Pradofloxacin in Cats with Feline Upper Respiratory Tract Disease due to Chlamydophila felis or Mycoplasma Infections","volume":"22","author":"Hartmann","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_254","first-page":"217","article-title":"Clinical efficacy and safety of pradofloxacin in the treatment of canine pyoderma and wound infections under field conditions","volume":"26","author":"Stephan","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Vet. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_255","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1111\/jsap.13218","article-title":"A review of the frequency and impact of periodontal disease in dogs","volume":"61","author":"Wallis","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Small Anim. Pract."},{"key":"ref_256","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1051","DOI":"10.1111\/jsap.13405","article-title":"Epidemiology of periodontal disease in dogs in the UK primary-care veterinary setting","volume":"62","author":"Mitchell","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Small Anim. Pract."},{"key":"ref_257","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1532-950X.1997.tb01459.x","article-title":"Bacterial Isolates From Plaque and From Blood During and After Routine Dental Procedures in Dogs","volume":"26","author":"Nieves","year":"1997","journal-title":"Vet. Surg."},{"key":"ref_258","first-page":"611","article-title":"Bacteremia during ultrasonic teeth cleaning and extraction in the dog","volume":"16","author":"Black","year":"1980","journal-title":"J. Am. Anim. Hosp. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_259","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"817","DOI":"10.1016\/S0195-5616(86)50303-X","article-title":"Periodontal disease. Etiology and pathogenesis","volume":"16","author":"Colmery","year":"1986","journal-title":"Vet. Clin. N. Am. Small Anim. Pract."},{"key":"ref_260","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Weese, J.S., Battersby, I., Morrison, J., Spofford, N., and Soltero-Rivera, M. (2023). Antimicrobial use practices in canine and feline dental procedures performed in primary care veterinary practices in the United States. PLoS ONE, 18.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0295070"},{"key":"ref_261","unstructured":"Stephan, B., Liege, P., Pridmore, A., Edingloh, M., and Greife, H.A. (2006, January 16\u201320). Results of the use of pradofloxacin in the treatment of canine periodontal disease. Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Antimicrobial Agents in Veterinary Medicine (AAVM), Orland, FL, USA."},{"key":"ref_262","unstructured":"Stephan, B., Hellman, K., Adler, K., and Greife, H.A. (2005, January 16\u201319). Clinical efficacy of pradofloxacin in the treatment of feline upper respiratory tract infections. Proceedings of the 45th International Conference of Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy (ICAAC), Washington, DC, USA. Poster F-508."},{"key":"ref_263","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"616","DOI":"10.1099\/jmm.0.000476","article-title":"Assessment of urinary pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of orbifloxacin in healthy dogs with ex vivo modelling","volume":"66","author":"Shimizu","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_264","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1186\/1751-0147-54-16","article-title":"Post-antibiotic effect of orbifloxacin against Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates from dogs","volume":"54","author":"Harada","year":"2012","journal-title":"Acta Vet. Scand."},{"key":"ref_265","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1111\/1348-0421.12461","article-title":"Determination of minimum biofilm eradication concentrations of orbifloxacin for canine bacterial uropathogens over different treatment periods","volume":"61","author":"Shimizu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Microbiol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_266","first-page":"236","article-title":"Bioavailability of orbifloxacin in African sharptooth catfish, Clarias pariepinus and it efficacy in control of induced Edwardsiellosis","volume":"6","author":"Ibrahem","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Am. Sci."},{"key":"ref_267","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1086\/510393","article-title":"Infectious Diseases Society of America and the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America guidelines for developing an institutional program to enhance antimicrobial stewardship","volume":"44","author":"Dellit","year":"2007","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_268","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"675","DOI":"10.1128\/microbiolspec.ARBA-0023-2017","article-title":"Antimicrobial Stewardship in Veterinary Medicine","volume":"6","author":"Lloyd","year":"2018","journal-title":"Microbiol. Spectr."}],"container-title":["Biomolecules"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2218-273X\/16\/7\/984\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,3]],"date-time":"2026-07-03T15:23:36Z","timestamp":1783092216000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2218-273X\/16\/7\/984"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,3]]},"references-count":268,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7]]}},"alternative-id":["biom16070984"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/biom16070984","relation":{},"ISSN":["2218-273X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2218-273X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,3]]}}}