{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,29]],"date-time":"2026-07-29T09:03:29Z","timestamp":1785315809929,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":59,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,27]],"date-time":"2026-07-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1785110400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Association Paratonnere"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biomolecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Epilepsy is increasingly recognized as a systemic disorder involving complex interactions between the brain and peripheral systems. Among these, the gut microbiota has emerged as a key regulator of host metabolism and immune homeostasis through the production of bioactive metabolites that mediate the communication between gut and brain. In recent years, growing evidence has linked gut dysbiosis to epilepsy, particularly in drug-resistant forms, and interventional studies targeting the gut microbiota in animal models suggest that microbiota-driven metabolic alterations may contribute to seizure generation and recurrence, as well as the associated neuropathology and cognitive deficits. In this review, we summarize current knowledge on the role of the gut microbiota\u2013metabolome axis in acquired epilepsy, with a particular focus on short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) and tryptophan-derived pathways. SCFAs represent major microbial products involved in energy metabolism, inflammation, blood\u2013brain barrier integrity, neurotransmission and epigenetic mechanisms. In parallel, microbiota-dependent tryptophan metabolism represents a central hub linking intestinal microbial activity to brain function through serotonin, kynurenine, and indole pathways. Dysregulation of these pathways may influence neuronal excitability and contribute to seizures. Converging evidence supports the concept that epilepsy is associated with a coordinated alteration of gut microbial composition and host\u2013microbiota metabolic interactions. However, further research is needed to elucidate the mutual communication between the gut and its microbiota and the metabolic flux, and their influence on brain function in neurological conditions. A better understanding of the underlying pathways and mechanisms may highlight novel therapeutic strategies and discover novel biomarkers of disease trajectory.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/biom16081098","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,27]],"date-time":"2026-07-27T14:08:14Z","timestamp":1785161294000},"page":"1098","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Epilepsy-Linked Gut Microbiota and Metabolic Signatures in Acquired Epilepsy: The Focus on Short-Chain Fatty Acid and Tryptophan Metabolism"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Teresa","family":"Ravizza","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Epilepsy and Therapeutic Strategies, Department of Acute Brain and Cardiovascular Injury, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri IRCCS, 20156 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7481-5198","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rossella","family":"Di Sapia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Epilepsy and Therapeutic Strategies, Department of Acute Brain and Cardiovascular Injury, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri IRCCS, 20156 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-4456-6100","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Akash","family":"Bera","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Epilepsy and Therapeutic Strategies, Department of Acute Brain and Cardiovascular Injury, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri IRCCS, 20156 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1976-699X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Claudia","family":"Fracasso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri IRCCS, 20156 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9503-8786","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jacopo","family":"Lucchetti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri IRCCS, 20156 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1014-6225","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marco","family":"Gobbi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri IRCCS, 20156 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0573-6175","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Annamaria","family":"Vezzani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Epilepsy and Therapeutic Strategies, Department of Acute Brain and Cardiovascular Injury, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri IRCCS, 20156 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1877","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.00018.2018","article-title":"The Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis","volume":"99","author":"Cryan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Physiol. 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