{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T23:13:21Z","timestamp":1780355601913,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":30,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,5]],"date-time":"2025-11-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1762300800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Key Research and Development Program of China","award":["2024YFB4711100"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024YFB4711100"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["52205035"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52205035"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biomimetics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In recent years, humanoid robots have made substantial advances in motion control and multimodal interaction. However, full-size humanoid robots face significant technical challenges due to their inherent geometric and physical properties, leading to large inertia of humanoid robots and substantial driving forces. These characteristics result in issues such as limited biomimetic capabilities, low control efficiency, and complex system integration, thereby restricting practical applications of full-size humanoid robots in real-world settings. To address these limitations, this paper incorporates a biomimetic design approach that draws inspiration from biological structures and movement mechanisms to enhance the robot\u2019s human-like movements and overall efficiency. The platform introduced in this paper, Loong, is designed to overcome these challenges, offering a practically viable solution for full-size humanoid robots. The research team has innovatively used highly biomimetic joint designs to enhance Loong\u2019s capacity for human-like movements and developed a multi-level control architecture along with a multi-master high-speed real-time communication mechanism that significantly improves its control efficiency. In addition, Loong incorporates a modular system integration strategy, which offers substantial advantages in mass production and maintenance, which improves its adaptability and practical utility for diverse operational environments. The biomimetic approach not only enhances Loong\u2019s functionality but also enables it to perform better in complex and dynamic environments. To validate Loong\u2019s design performance, extensive experimental tests were performed, which demonstrated the robot\u2019s ability to traverse complex terrains such as 13 cm steps and 20\u00b0 slopes and its competence in object manipulation and transportation. These innovations provide a new design paradigm for the development of full-size humanoid robots while laying a more compatible foundation for the development of hardware platforms for medium- and small-sized humanoid robots. This work makes a significant contribution to the practical deployment of humanoid robots.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/biomimetics10110745","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,5]],"date-time":"2025-11-05T17:06:06Z","timestamp":1762362366000},"page":"745","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Loong: An Open-Source Platform for Full-Size Universal Humanoid Robot Toward Better Practicality"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Lei","family":"Jiang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"The National and Local Co-Build Humanoid Robotics Innovation Center, Shanghai 201203, China"},{"name":"Humanoid Robot (Shanghai) Co., Ltd., Shanghai 201203, China"},{"name":"Unmanned Vehicle Research Center, China North Vehicle Research Institute, Beijing 100072, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Heng","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Humanoid Robot (Shanghai) Co., Ltd., Shanghai 201203, China"},{"name":"Unmanned Vehicle Research Center, China North Vehicle Research Institute, Beijing 100072, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Boyang","family":"Xing","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The National and Local Co-Build Humanoid Robotics Innovation Center, Shanghai 201203, China"},{"name":"Humanoid Robot (Shanghai) Co., Ltd., Shanghai 201203, China"},{"name":"Unmanned Vehicle Research Center, China North Vehicle Research Institute, Beijing 100072, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhenjie","family":"Liang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The National and Local Co-Build Humanoid Robotics Innovation Center, Shanghai 201203, China"},{"name":"Humanoid Robot (Shanghai) Co., Ltd., Shanghai 201203, China"},{"name":"Unmanned Vehicle Research Center, China North Vehicle Research Institute, Beijing 100072, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zeyuan","family":"Sun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The National and Local Co-Build Humanoid Robotics Innovation Center, Shanghai 201203, China"},{"name":"Humanoid Robot (Shanghai) Co., Ltd., Shanghai 201203, China"},{"name":"Unmanned Vehicle Research Center, China North Vehicle Research Institute, Beijing 100072, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jingran","family":"Cheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Humanoid Robot (Shanghai) Co., Ltd., Shanghai 201203, China"},{"name":"Unmanned Vehicle Research Center, China North Vehicle Research Institute, Beijing 100072, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Song","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Humanoid Robot (Shanghai) Co., Ltd., Shanghai 201203, China"},{"name":"Unmanned Vehicle Research Center, China North Vehicle Research Institute, Beijing 100072, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xu","family":"Song","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Humanoid Robot (Shanghai) Co., Ltd., Shanghai 201203, China"},{"name":"Unmanned Vehicle Research Center, China North Vehicle Research Institute, Beijing 100072, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xinyue","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Humanoid Robot (Shanghai) Co., Ltd., Shanghai 201203, China"},{"name":"Unmanned Vehicle Research Center, China North Vehicle Research Institute, Beijing 100072, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hai","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Humanoid Robot (Shanghai) Co., Ltd., Shanghai 201203, China"},{"name":"Unmanned Vehicle Research Center, China North Vehicle Research Institute, Beijing 100072, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yongyao","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The National and Local Co-Build Humanoid Robotics Innovation Center, Shanghai 201203, China"},{"name":"Humanoid Robot (Shanghai) Co., Ltd., Shanghai 201203, China"},{"name":"Unmanned Vehicle Research Center, China North Vehicle Research Institute, Beijing 100072, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yufei","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The National and Local Co-Build Humanoid Robotics Innovation Center, Shanghai 201203, China"},{"name":"Humanoid Robot (Shanghai) Co., Ltd., Shanghai 201203, China"},{"name":"Unmanned Vehicle Research Center, China North Vehicle Research Institute, Beijing 100072, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lazaro-Gredilla, M., Lin, D., Guntupalli, J.S., and George, D. 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