{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,9]],"date-time":"2026-05-09T14:41:43Z","timestamp":1778337703250,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":33,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,4]],"date-time":"2025-12-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1764806400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004608","name":"Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["BK20210930"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BK20210930"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004608","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biomimetics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Current upper-limb rehabilitation robots primarily focus on training tasks involving free movements or static interactions with rigid objects. These paradigms lack simulation of complex object manipulation tasks encountered in daily life, thereby limiting the training of patients\u2019 high-level sensorimotor integration capabilities. To address this gap, this study proposes an innovative robotic rehabilitation training system designed for functional occupational therapy. Specifically, the task of transporting a water cup was abstracted into a cup\u2013ball system integrated with a robotic arm. The ball was modeled as a point mass, and kinematic and dynamic analyses of the system were conducted. A visual tracking method was employed to monitor the ball\u2019s motion and calculate its slosh angle. Owing to the impaired fine motor control in stroke patients, a sloshing suppression control strategy integrating exponential filtering, feedforward force compensation, and impedance control was proposed to prevent the ball from spilling. Experiments validated the effectiveness of the proposed method. The results indicated that with full compensation, the oscillation rate of the ball was significantly reduced, and the smoothness of the hand force was markedly improved. This study presents an effective method for addressing dynamic uncertainty in rehabilitation robot training, thus significantly improving the functional relevance of the training.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/biomimetics10120815","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,5]],"date-time":"2025-12-05T18:42:02Z","timestamp":1764960122000},"page":"815","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Robot-Assisted Dynamic Interaction of Hemiplegic Upper Limbs with Complex Objects Based on Enhanced Feedforward-Impedance Control"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Jing","family":"Bai","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical Engineering, Nanjing Institute of Technology, Nanjing 211167, China"},{"name":"School of Instrument Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ruoyi","family":"Zhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical Engineering, Nanjing Institute of Technology, Nanjing 211167, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yicheng","family":"Jiang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical Engineering, Nanjing Institute of Technology, Nanjing 211167, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xiaofei","family":"Du","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Harbin Engineering University, Harbin 150001, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"1762","article-title":"Survey on research and application of rehabilitation robot technology in our country","volume":"38","author":"Luo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Chin. J. Rehabil. Med."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1828","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2024.3396065","article-title":"Effectiveness of Intelligent Control Strategies in Robot-Assisted Rehabilitation\u2014A Systematic Review","volume":"32","author":"Brown","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Neural Syst. Rehabil. Eng."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Catal\u00e1n, J.M., Trigili, E., Nann, M., Blanco-Ivorra, A., Lauretti, C., Cordella, F., Ivorra, E., Armstrong, E., Crea, S., and Alca\u00f1iz, M. (2023). Hybrid brain\/neural interface and autonomous vision-guided whole-arm exoskeleton control to perform activities of daily living (ADLs). J. Neuroeng. Rehabil., 20.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12984-023-01185-w"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Try, P., Sch\u00f6llmann, S., W\u00f6hle, L., and Gebhard, M. (2021). Visual Sensor Fusion Based Autonomous Robotic System for Assistive Drinking. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21165419"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guatibonza, A., Solaque, L., Velasco, A., and Pe\u00f1uela, L. (2024). Assistive Robotics for Upper Limb Physical Rehabilitation: A Systematic Review and Future Prospects. Chin. J. Mech. Eng., 37.","DOI":"10.1186\/s10033-024-01056-y"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"840","DOI":"10.1109\/OJIES.2025.3570789","article-title":"Minimizing Interference in Robotic Rehabilitation via Asymmetric Stiffness Force Fields","volume":"6","author":"Kato","year":"2025","journal-title":"IEEE Open J. Ind. Electron. Soc."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hu, K., Ma, Z., Zou, S., Li, J., and Ding, H. (2024). Impedance Sliding-Mode Control Based on Stiffness Scheduling for Rehabilitation Robot Systems. Cyborg Bionic Syst., 5.","DOI":"10.34133\/cbsystems.0099"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lingampally, P.K., Ramanathan, K.C., Shanmugam, R., Cepova, L., and Salunkhe, S. (2024). Wearable Assistive Rehabilitation Robotic Devices\u2014A Comprehensive Review. Machines, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/machines12060415"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2023.10.024","article-title":"Immersive Virtual Reality to Assess Arm Kinematics among Older Adults with and without Major Neurocognitive Disorder\u2014An Exploratory Cross-Sectional Study","volume":"537","author":"Everard","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Lum, P.S., Burgar, C.G., Van der Loos, M., Shor, P.C., Majmundar, M., and Yap, R. (July, January 28). The MIME robotic system for upper-limb neuro-rehabilitation: Results from a clinical trial in subacute stroke. Proceedings of the 2005 IEEE 9th International Conference on Rehabilitation Robotics, Chicago, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1007\/s12369-016-0393-4","article-title":"A Novel Human-Robot Cooperative Method for Upper Extremity Rehabilitation","volume":"9","author":"Bai","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Soc. Robot."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marneweck, M., Lee-Miller, T., Santello, M., and Gordon, A.M. (2016). Digit Position and Forces Covary during Anticipatory Control of Whole-Hand Manipulation. Front. Hum. Neurosci., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2016.00461"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"740","DOI":"10.1016\/S0959-4388(00)00149-5","article-title":"The planning and control of reaching movements","volume":"10","author":"Sabes","year":"2000","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tu, X., Han, H., Huang, J., Li, J., Su, C., Jiang, X., and He, J. (2017). Upper Limb Rehabilitation Robot Powered by PAMs Cooperates with FES Arrays to Realize Reach-to-Grasp Trainings. J. Healthc. Eng., 2017.","DOI":"10.1155\/2017\/1282934"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1464","DOI":"10.1161\/STROKEAHA.122.041480","article-title":"Exoskeleton-Assisted Anthropomorphic Movement Training for the Upper Limb After Stroke: The EAMT Randomized Trial","volume":"54","author":"Chen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, M., Taetz, B., Saraiva, E.D., Bleser, G., and Liu, S. (November, January 31). On-line Motion Prediction and Adaptive Control in Human-Robot Handover Tasks. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE International Conference on Advanced Robotics and its Social Impacts, Beijing, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ARSO46408.2019.8948750"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guo, B., Li, Z., Huang, M., Li, X., and Han, J. (2024). Patient\u2019s Healthy-Limb Motion Characteristic-Based Assist-As-Needed Control Strategy for Upper-Limb Rehabilitation Robots. Sensors, 24.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202401.1235.v1"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"634","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aej.2023.07.024","article-title":"Control strategy based on improved fuzzy algorithm for energy control of wrist rehabilitation robot","volume":"77","author":"Ren","year":"2023","journal-title":"Alex. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mahfouz, D.M., Shehata, O.M., Morgan, E.I., and Arrichiello, F. (2024). A Comprehensive Review of Control Challenges and Methods in End-Effector Upper-Limb Rehabilitation Robots. Robotics, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/robotics13120181"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bakhtiari, M., Haghjoo, M.R., and Taghizadeh, M. (2024). Model-free adaptive variable impedance control of gait rehabilitation exoskeleton. J. Braz. Soc. Mech. Sci. Eng., 46.","DOI":"10.1007\/s40430-024-05115-2"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isatra.2020.08.036","article-title":"Novel adaptive impedance control for exoskeleton robot for rehabilitation using a nonlinear time-delay disturbance observer","volume":"108","author":"Brahmi","year":"2021","journal-title":"ISA Trans."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xue, J., Liang, W., Wu, Y., and Lee, T.H. (2025). Model predictive variable impedance control towards safe robotic interaction in unknown disturbance-rich environments. Robot. Auton. Syst., 189.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.robot.2025.104961"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1310","DOI":"10.1007\/s11424-020-8335-5","article-title":"Optimal Predictive Impedance Control in the Presence of Uncertainty for a Lower Limb Rehabilitation Robot","volume":"33","author":"Jalaeian","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Syst. Sci. Complex."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"849","DOI":"10.55730\/1300-0632.4106","article-title":"A cascade genetic algorithm based adaptive backstepping impedance control for upper limb rehabilitation robot","volume":"32","author":"Aichaoui","year":"2024","journal-title":"Turk. J. Electr. Eng. Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jiang, Z., Wang, Z., Lv, Q., and Yang, J. (2024). Impedance Learning-Based Hybrid Adaptive Control of Upper Limb Rehabilitation Robots. Actuators, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/act13060220"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1487","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2024.3383857","article-title":"Continuous Motion Intention Prediction Using sEMG for Upper-Limb Rehabilitation: A Systematic Review of Model-Based and Model-Free Approaches","volume":"32","author":"Wei","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Neural Syst. Rehabil. Eng."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1829","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2018.2883660","article-title":"Development of an SEMG-Handgrip Force Model Based on Cross Model Selection","volume":"19","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7039","DOI":"10.1007\/s00707-024-04068-w","article-title":"Rapid sloshing-free transport of liquids in arbitrarily shaped containers","volume":"235","author":"Toth","year":"2024","journal-title":"Acta Mech."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nasseroleslami, B., Hasson, C.J., and Sternad, D. (2014). Rhythmic manipulation of objects with complex dynamics: Predictability over chaos. PLoS Comput. Biol., 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1003900"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nayeem, R., Bazzi, S., Sadeghi, M., Hogan, N., and Sternad, D. (2021). Preparing to move: Setting initial conditions to simplify interactions with complex objects. PLoS Comput. Biol., 17.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1009597"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"765","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.00918.2017","article-title":"Predictability, force, and (anti)resonance in complex object control","volume":"120","author":"Maurice","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"853","DOI":"10.1162\/neco_a_01576","article-title":"Body Mechanics, Optimality, and Sensory Feedback in the Human Control of Complex Objects","volume":"35","author":"Razavian","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neural Comput."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"609","article-title":"Optimal Trajectories for Vibration Reduction Based on Exponential Filters","volume":"24","author":"Biagotti","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Control. Syst. Technol."}],"container-title":["Biomimetics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2313-7673\/10\/12\/815\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,5]],"date-time":"2025-12-05T19:12:11Z","timestamp":1764961931000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2313-7673\/10\/12\/815"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,4]]},"references-count":33,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["biomimetics10120815"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/biomimetics10120815","relation":{},"ISSN":["2313-7673"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2313-7673","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,4]]}}}