{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,9]],"date-time":"2025-12-09T14:06:14Z","timestamp":1765289174260,"version":"3.46.0"},"reference-count":31,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,9]],"date-time":"2025-12-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1765238400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Social Science Fund for Art","award":["21BG125"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["21BG125"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biomimetics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In response to the personalized and precise rehabilitation needs for motor injuries and stroke associated with population aging, this study proposes a design method for an intelligent rehabilitation trainer that integrates Bayesian information gain (BIG) and axis matching techniques. Grounded in the biomechanical characteristics of the human ankle joint, the design fully draws upon biomimetic principles, constructing a 3-PUU-R hybrid serial\u2013parallel bionic mechanism. By mimicking the dynamic variation of the ankle\u2019s instantaneous motion axis and its balance between stiffness and compliance, a three-dimensional digital model was developed, and multi-posture human factor simulations were conducted, thereby achieving a rehabilitation process more consistent with natural human movement patterns. Natural randomized disability grade experimental data were collected for 100 people to verify the validity of the design results. On this basis, a Bayesian information gain framework was established by quantifying the reduction of uncertainty in rehabilitation outcomes through characteristic parameters, enabling the dynamic optimization of training strategies for personalized and precise ankle rehabilitation. The rehabilitation process was modeled as a problem of uncertainty quantification and information gain optimization. Prior distributions were constructed using surface EMG (electromyography) signals and motion trajectory errors, and mutual information was used to drive the dynamic adjustment of training strategies, ultimately forming a closed-loop control architecture of \u201cdemand perception\u2013strategy optimization\u2013execution adaptation.\u201d This innovative integration of probabilistic modeling and cross-joint bionic design overcomes the limitations of single-joint rehabilitation and provides a new paradigm for the development of intelligent rehabilitation devices. The deep integration mechanism-based dynamic axis matching and Bayesian information gain holds significant theoretical value and engineering application prospects for enhancing the effectiveness of neural plasticity training.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/biomimetics10120823","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,9]],"date-time":"2025-12-09T13:51:46Z","timestamp":1765288306000},"page":"823","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Development of a Bayesian Network and Information Gain-Based Axis Dynamic Mechanism for Ankle Joint Rehabilitation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Huiguo","family":"Ma","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"The Academy of VR and Art, Jiangxi University of Software Professional Technology, Nanchang 330041, China"},{"name":"Centro de Autom\u00e1tica y Rob\u00f3tica UPM-CSIC, Escuela T\u00e9cnica Superior de Ingenier\u00eda y Dise\u00f1o Industrial, Universidad Polit\u00e9cnica de Madrid, Ronda de Valencia, 3, 28012 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yuqi","family":"Bao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Academy of VR and Art, Jiangxi University of Software Professional Technology, Nanchang 330041, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jingfu","family":"Lan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Information Engineering, Quanzhou Ocean Institute, Shishi City, Quanzhou 362700, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xuewen","family":"Zhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Academy of VR and Art, Jiangxi University of Software Professional Technology, Nanchang 330041, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Pinwei","family":"Wan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Academy of VR and Art, Jiangxi University of Software Professional Technology, Nanchang 330041, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4361-4331","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Raquel","family":"Cedazo Le\u00f3n","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Autom\u00e1tica y Rob\u00f3tica UPM-CSIC, Escuela T\u00e9cnica Superior de Ingenier\u00eda y Dise\u00f1o Industrial, Universidad Polit\u00e9cnica de Madrid, Ronda de Valencia, 3, 28012 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Shuo","family":"Jiang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Design, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Fangfang","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Academy of VR and Art, Jiangxi University of Software Professional Technology, Nanchang 330041, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jun","family":"Kang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Academy of VR and Art, Jiangxi University of Software Professional Technology, Nanchang 330041, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9723-883X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Qihan","family":"Guo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Art and Design, Wuhan University of technology, Wuhan 430070, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Peng","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Arts and Design, Yanshan University, Haigang District, Qinhuangdao 066000, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"He","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Information Engineering, Quanzhou Ocean Institute, Shishi City, Quanzhou 362700, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1109\/TMECH.2012.2219065","article-title":"An Adaptive Wearable Parallel Robot for the Treatment of Ankle Injuries","volume":"19","author":"Jamwal","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE\/ASME Trans. Mechatron."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lobo, P., Morais, P., Murray, P., and Vila\u00e7a, J.L. (2024). Trends and Innovations in Wearable Technology for Motor Rehabilitation, Prediction, and Monitoring: A Comprehensive Review. Sensors, 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/s24247973"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Y., Wu, X., Fang, Y., Osawa, K., Nakagawa, K., Yamasaki, S., and Tanaka, E. (2024). Design, Control, and Analysis of a 3-Degree-of-Freedom Kinematic\u2013Biologically Matched Hip Joint Structure for Lower Limb Exoskeleton. Machines, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/machines12120924"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schappler, M. (2025). Dimensional Synthesis of Parallel Robots Using Bilevel Optimization for Design Optimization and Resolution of Functional Redundancy. Robotics, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/robotics14030029"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86645","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2023.3304992","article-title":"Intelligent Control of Multilegged Robot Smooth Motion: A Review","volume":"11","author":"Zhao","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"085023","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6501\/ad4c83","article-title":"Unified Framework for Geometric Error Compensation and Shape-Adaptive Scanning in Five-Axis Metrology Systems","volume":"35","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Meas. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kalsoom, A., Shah, M.F., and Farooq, M.U. (2025). Advancements in State-of-the-Art Ankle Rehabilitation Robotic Devices: A Review of Design, Actuation and Control Strategies. Machines, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/machines13050429"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dong, H., Liu, P., Lu, S., Yan, P., and Sun, Q. (2024). Long-Travel 3-PRR Parallel Platform Based on Biomimetic Variable-Diameter Helical Flexible Hinges. Micromachines, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/mi15030338"},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Zhang, S., Zhang, Y., Lyu, J., and Agrawal, S.K. (2025). From Structural Design to Dynamics Modeling: Control-Oriented Development of a 3-RRR Parallel Ankle Rehabilitation Robot 2025. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3450","DOI":"10.1017\/S0263574724001462","article-title":"Analysis and Optimization Design of Motion Characteristics for a 3- P UU\/ R Parallel Ankle Joint Rehabilitation Mechanism","volume":"42","author":"Chen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Robotica"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"nwad298","DOI":"10.1093\/nsr\/nwad298","article-title":"Machine-Learned Wearable Sensors for Real-Time Hand-Motion Recognition: Toward Practical Applications","volume":"11","author":"Pyun","year":"2024","journal-title":"Natl. Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al-Ayyad, M., Owida, H.A., De Fazio, R., Al-Naami, B., and Visconti, P. (2023). Electromyography Monitoring Systems in Rehabilitation: A Review of Clinical Applications, Wearable Devices and Signal Acquisition Methodologies. Electronics, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics12071520"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.18178\/joig.10.1.1-9","article-title":"An Adaptive Differential Evolution Algorithm with a Point-Based Approach for 3D Point Cloud Registration","volume":"10","author":"Tao","year":"2022","journal-title":"JOIG"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1487","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2024.3383857","article-title":"Continuous Motion Intention Prediction Using sEMG for Upper-Limb Rehabilitation: A Systematic Review of Model-Based and Model-Free Approaches","volume":"32","author":"Wei","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Neural Syst. Rehabil. Eng."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36538","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2022.3163384","article-title":"A Review on Bayesian Deep Learning in Healthcare: Applications and Challenges","volume":"10","author":"Abdullah","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khanna, A., El Barachi, M., Jain, S., Kumar, M., and Nayyar, A. (2024). Feasibility of AI and Robotics in Indian Healthcare: A Narrative Analysis. Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning in Drug Design and Development, Wiley.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781394234196"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, X., Qu, Y., Zhang, G., Wang, Z., Chen, C., and Xu, X. (2025). Review of sEMG for Exoskeleton Robots: Motion Intention Recognition Techniques and Applications. Sensors, 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/s25082448"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20989","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.iecr.4c02956","article-title":"Regularized Bayesian Fusion for Multimodal Data Integration in Industrial Processes","volume":"63","author":"Strelet","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ind. Eng. Chem. Res."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ma, H., Bao, Y., Jia, C., Chen, G., Lan, J., Shi, M., Li, H., Guo, Q., Guan, L., and Li, S. (2025). Development of a Bayesian Network-Based Parallel Mechanism for Lower Limb Gait Rehabilitation. Biomimetics, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomimetics10040230"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18118","DOI":"10.1109\/TNNLS.2025.3577259","article-title":"Robust Multi-Agent Reinforcement Learning by Mutual Information Regularization","volume":"36","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Neural Netw. Learning Syst."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"935","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2025.3543649","article-title":"On the Benefit of FMG and EMG Sensor Fusion for Gesture Recognition Using Cross-Subject Validation","volume":"33","author":"Rohr","year":"2025","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Neural Syst. Rehabil. Eng."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"628","DOI":"10.1177\/09544119221074770","article-title":"Review on Electromyography Based Intention for Upper Limb Control Using Pattern Recognition for Human-Machine Interaction","volume":"236","author":"Asghar","year":"2022","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. H"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10439","DOI":"10.1080\/15397734.2024.2356066","article-title":"Inverse Kinematics Analysis of a Wrist Rehabilitation Robot Using Artificial Neural Network and Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Inference System","volume":"52","author":"Saeedi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mech. Based Des. Struct. Mach."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"956","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsports-2017-098106","article-title":"Diagnosis, Treatment and Prevention of Ankle Sprains: Update of an Evidence-Based Clinical Guideline","volume":"52","author":"Vuurberg","year":"2018","journal-title":"Br. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vogl, T.J., Reith, W., and Rummeny, E.J. (2016). Diseases of the Joints. Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-44037-7"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"941","DOI":"10.1007\/s11517-021-02494-9","article-title":"Fifty Years of Shannon Information Theory in Assessing the Accuracy and Agreement of Diagnostic Tests","volume":"60","author":"Casagrande","year":"2022","journal-title":"Med. Biol. Eng. Comput."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Garrido-Merch\u00e1n, E.C. (2025). An Information-Theoretic Intersectional Data Valuation Theory. Entropy, 27."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.31662\/jmaj.2024-0157","article-title":"Return to Work after Upper or Lower Extremity Long Bone Fractures: Social Factors in a Japanese Multicenter Cohort Study","volume":"8","author":"Ishii","year":"2025","journal-title":"JMA J."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1002\/ksa.12322","article-title":"Valgus Stress Knee Radiographs Accurately Anticipate the Bone Resection in Medial Unicompartmental Knee Arthroplasty: Protocol Validation Using an Image-based Robotic System","volume":"33","author":"Gaggiotti","year":"2025","journal-title":"Knee Surg. Sports Traumatol. Arthrosc."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hosseinzadeh, H. (2025). Skeletal System. Fundamentals of Medicine for Biomedical Engineering, Springer Nature Switzerland.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-74085-5_8"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.12968\/ijtr.2007.14.2.23518","article-title":"Ankle Joint Dorsiflexion: Assessment of True Values Necessary for Normal Gait","volume":"14","author":"Weir","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Ther. Rehabil."}],"container-title":["Biomimetics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2313-7673\/10\/12\/823\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,9]],"date-time":"2025-12-09T14:01:34Z","timestamp":1765288894000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2313-7673\/10\/12\/823"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,9]]},"references-count":31,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["biomimetics10120823"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/biomimetics10120823","relation":{},"ISSN":["2313-7673"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2313-7673","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,9]]}}}