{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,28]],"date-time":"2026-04-28T19:48:32Z","timestamp":1777405712160,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":34,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,4]],"date-time":"2026-02-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1770163200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001840","name":"TECHNICAL DEVELOPMENT FUND AT THE ICELANDIC CENTER FOR RESEARCH","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2410471-051"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2410471-051"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001840","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biomimetics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The lack of reliable sensory input from prosthetic limbs limits transfemoral amputees\u2019 ability to perceive limb movement without visual monitoring. This study evaluated design parameters of a proposed forearm-based vibrotactile system in a pre-clinical, design-level perceptual evaluation, conveying prosthetic joint positions through patterned vibrations to provide non-invasive proprioceptive feedback. Healthy participants completed two experiments assessing detection of tactile cues from dual-actuator bands on the wrist and elbow representing assumed ankle and knee positions. The effects of temporal structuring (sequential vs. simultaneous stimulation), actuator configuration, amplitude and frequency settings, and signal duration on response accuracy were examined. Sequential vibrations produced significantly higher recognition accuracy than simultaneous presentation (72.4% vs. 42.7%, p &lt; 0.001) in a variety of vibration signal parameter values. Actuator placement also influenced performance: simultaneous stimulation on opposite forearm sides yielded significantly lower accuracy (p &lt; 0.001) than same-side configurations, whereas this directional effect was not significant for sequential presentation. Accuracy did not differ significantly between equal and unequal amplitude or frequency levels across actuators. Longer stimulus durations improved accuracy, increasing from 82.3% at 60 ms to 92.5% at 240 ms, though the results indicated a saturation point, suggesting an optimal temporal window. These findings inform the design of forearm-based sensory feedback systems for improved prosthetic limb control.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/biomimetics11020112","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,4]],"date-time":"2026-02-04T09:02:01Z","timestamp":1770195721000},"page":"112","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Perceptual Design and Evaluation of a Forearm-Based Vibrotactile Interface for Transfemoral Prosthetic Feedback"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-3069-6976","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohammadmahdi","family":"Karimi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering and Natural Sciences, University of Iceland, 102 Reykjav\u00edk, Iceland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9435-2258","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sigur\u00f0ur","family":"Brynj\u00f3lfsson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering and Natural Sciences, University of Iceland, 102 Reykjav\u00edk, Iceland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0606-991X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Krist\u00edn","family":"Briem","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Health Sciences, University of Iceland, 102 Reykjav\u00edk, Iceland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4168-4886","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"\u00c1rni","family":"Kristj\u00e1nsson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Health Sciences, University of Iceland, 102 Reykjav\u00edk, Iceland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1960-0263","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Runar","family":"Unnthorsson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering and Natural Sciences, University of Iceland, 102 Reykjav\u00edk, Iceland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85956","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3086807","article-title":"Advancements, Trends and Future Prospects of Lower Limb Prosthesis","volume":"9","author":"Asif","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1409","DOI":"10.1109\/TMRB.2024.3464126","article-title":"Advancements and Challenges in the Development of Robotic Lower Limb Prostheses: A Systematic Review","volume":"6","author":"Fagioli","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Med. Robot. Bionics"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2012.07.023","article-title":"Postural responses during volitional and perturbed dynamic balance tasks in new lower limb amputees: A longitudinal study","volume":"37","author":"Barnett","year":"2013","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, M., Zhong, B., Liu, Z., Lee, I.C., Fylstra, B.L., Lobaton, E., and Huang, H.H. (2019). Gaze Fixation Comparisons Between Amputees and Able-bodied Individuals in Approaching Stairs and Level-ground Transitions: A Pilot Study. 41st Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC), IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/EMBC.2019.8857388"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1097\/00003086-199211000-00034","article-title":"Lower-Limb Proprioception in above-Knee Amputees","volume":"284","author":"Eakin","year":"1992","journal-title":"Clin. Orthop. Relat. Res."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417982","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/417982","article-title":"Proprioception in Above-the-Knee Amputees with Artificial Limbs","volume":"2013","author":"Latanioti","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sci. World J."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1002\/pmrj.12702","article-title":"The effect of dual-task testing on the balance and gait of people with lower limb amputations: A systematic review","volume":"15","author":"Omana","year":"2023","journal-title":"PMR"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"541","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2003.10.013","article-title":"Sensory substitution and the human-machine interface","volume":"7","author":"Kercel","year":"2003","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1186\/s12984-015-0055-z","article-title":"Haptic wearables as sensory replacement, sensory augmentation and trainer\u2014A review","volume":"12","author":"Shull","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Neuroeng. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sienko, K.H., Seidler, R.D., Carender, W.J., Goodworth, A.D., Whitney, S.L., and Peterka, R.J. (2018). Potential Mechanisms of Sensory Augmentation Systems on Human Balance Control. Front. Neurol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2018.00944"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1186\/s12984-021-00952-x","article-title":"Improving postural stability among people with lower-limb amputations by tactile sensory substitution","volume":"18","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Neuroeng. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1239","DOI":"10.1682\/JRRD.2011.05.0088","article-title":"Can vibratory feedback be used to improve postural stability in persons with transtibial limb loss?","volume":"49","author":"Rusaw","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Rehabil. Res. Dev."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lauretti, C., Pinzari, G., Ciancio, A.L., Davalli, A., Sacchetti, R., Sterzi, S., Guglielmelli, E., and Zollo, L. (2017). A vibrotactile stimulation system for improving postural control and knee joint proprioception in lower-limb amputees. Proceedings of the 26th IEEE International Symposium on Robot and Human Interactive Communication (RO-MAN), Lisbon, Portugal, 28 August\u20131 September 2017, IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/ROMAN.2017.8172285"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.2522\/ptj.20150441","article-title":"Time-Discrete Vibrotactile Feedback Contributes to Improved Gait Symmetry in Patients with Lower Limb Amputations: Case Series","volume":"97","author":"Crea","year":"2017","journal-title":"Phys. Ther."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2020.3034521","article-title":"Increased Symmetry of Lower-Limb Amputees Walking with Concurrent Bilateral Vibrotactile Feedback","volume":"29","author":"Martini","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Neural. Syst. Rehabil. Eng."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"016008","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2552\/ac43f8","article-title":"A non-invasive wearable sensory leg neuroprosthesis: Mechanical, electrical and functional validation","volume":"19","author":"Basla","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Neural. Eng."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dietrich, C., Nehrdich, S., Seifert, S., Blume, K.R., Miltner, W.H.R., Hofmann, G.O., and Weiss, T. (2018). Leg Prosthesis With Somatosensory Feedback Reduces Phantom Limb Pain and Increases Functionality. Front. Neurol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2018.00270"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Karimi, M., Yeganeh, N., Makarov, I., Sverrisson, A.\u00d6., Gunnarsson, K.F., Briem, K., Brynj\u00f3lfsson, S., Kristj\u00e1nsson, \u00c1., and Unnthorsson, R. (2025). Haptic Feedback Systems for Lower-Limb Prosthetic Applications: A Review of System Design, User Experience, and Clinical Insights. Bioengineering, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/bioengineering12090989"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48937","DOI":"10.1155\/2007\/48937","article-title":"Vibrotactile feedback for brain-computer interface operation","volume":"2007","author":"Cincotti","year":"2007","journal-title":"Comput. Intell. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1186\/s12984-024-01403-z","article-title":"Wearable biofeedback device to assess gait features and improve gait pattern in people with parkinson\u2019s disease: A case series","volume":"21","author":"Bowman","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Neuroeng. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, B., Feng, Y., and Wang, Q. (2016). Combining Vibrotactile Feedback with Volitional Myoelectric Control for Robotic Transtibial Prostheses. Front. Neurorobot., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnbot.2016.00008"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1109\/TOH.2016.2580507","article-title":"A Haptic Feedback System for Phase-Based Sensory Restoration in Above-Knee Prosthetic Leg Users","volume":"9","author":"Villarreal","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Haptics"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3432189","article-title":"VibroMap: Understanding the Spacing of Vibrotactile Actuators across the Body","volume":"4","author":"Elsayed","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc. ACM Interact. Mob. Wearable Ubiquitous Technol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.1177\/03010066241258969","article-title":"Vibrotactile spatial acuity on the back","volume":"53","author":"Plaisier","year":"2024","journal-title":"Perception"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yeganeh, N., Makarov, I., Kristj\u00e1nsson, \u00c1., and Unnthorsson, R. (2024). Discrimination Accuracy of Sequential Versus Simultaneous Vibrotactile Stimulation on the Forearm. Appl. Sci., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/app14010043"},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"1","article-title":"Vibrotactile Threshold Measurements at the Wrist Using Parallel Vibration Actuators","volume":"19","author":"Pind","year":"2022","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Appl. Percept."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"4","article-title":"The Haptic Intensity Order Illusion Is Caused by Amplitude Changes","volume":"21","author":"Makarov","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Appl. Percept."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yeganeh, N., Makarov, I., Unnthorsson, R., and Kristj\u00e1nsson, \u00c1. (2023). Effects of Stimulus Frequency and Location on Vibrotactile Discrimination Performance Using Voice Coil Actuators on the Forearm. Actuators, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/act12060224"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2121","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.00513.2006","article-title":"Duration-dependent response of SI to vibrotactile stimulation in squirrel monkey","volume":"97","author":"Simons","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116943","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2020.116943","article-title":"Brain (re)organisation following amputation: Implications for phantom limb pain","volume":"218","author":"Makin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1051232024","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.1051-23.2023","article-title":"Cortical Reorganization after Limb Loss: Bridging the Gap between Basic Science and Clinical Recovery","volume":"44","author":"Sparling","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3443","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awn297","article-title":"Upper limb amputees can be induced to experience a rubber hand as their own","volume":"131","author":"Ehrsson","year":"2008","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1080\/13554794.2013.791861","article-title":"Neural correlates of the rubber hand illusion in amputees: A report of two cases","volume":"20","author":"Schmalzl","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neurocase"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1186\/s12984-023-01234-4","article-title":"The impact of walking on the perception of multichannel electrotactile stimulation in individuals with lower-limb amputation and able-bodied participants","volume":"20","author":"Valette","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Neuroeng. Rehabil."}],"container-title":["Biomimetics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2313-7673\/11\/2\/112\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,4]],"date-time":"2026-02-04T09:26:09Z","timestamp":1770197169000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2313-7673\/11\/2\/112"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,4]]},"references-count":34,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2]]}},"alternative-id":["biomimetics11020112"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/biomimetics11020112","relation":{},"ISSN":["2313-7673"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2313-7673","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,4]]}}}