{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T02:04:59Z","timestamp":1790820299084,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":54,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,27]],"date-time":"2026-02-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1772150400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biomimetics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Ground reaction force (GRF) is essential for maintaining dynamic stability and generating power during the golf swing. Traditional GRF assessment relies on force plates, limiting measurement to laboratory environments and restricting evaluation of natural, field-based performance. Recent work has explored wearable inertial measurement units (IMUs) and data-driven models to estimate GRF during simple locomotor tasks, yet no study has examined whether coupled lower-limb kinematics can predict three-dimensional GRF during complex, high-speed movements such as the golf swing. This study collected bilateral hip, knee, and ankle joint angles from IMUs, along with 3D GRF data, to evaluate five biomimetic deep learning (DL) architectures across seven sensor configurations. The TCN-BiGRU model achieved the highest accuracy (R2 = 0.94 \u00b1 0.02, MRE = 0.044 \u00b1 0.01, NRMSE = 0.064 \u00b1 0.01) among the architectures evaluated in this study, effectively capturing both local and long-range temporal dependencies in human movement. The full bilateral lower-limb configuration yielded the best overall performance, whereas using only the lead leg provided a cost-efficient alternative with minimal loss of accuracy. Among the GRF components, the vertical direction showed the greatest predictive reliability. These findings demonstrate the feasibility and potential of kinematic\u2013force modeling and support the development of wearable, field-ready systems for GRF estimation in dynamic sports environments.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/biomimetics11030159","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,27]],"date-time":"2026-02-27T15:52:38Z","timestamp":1772207558000},"page":"159","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Prediction of Three-Dimensional Ground Reaction Forces in the Golf Swing Using Wearable Inertial Measurement Units and Biomimetic Deep Learning Models"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Jiayun","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Social Sports, Tianjin University of Sport, Tianjin 301617, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ruoyu","family":"Wei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kyung Hee University, Yongin 17104, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qiantong","family":"Xie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Physical Education, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Changfa","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Sport and Training, Tianjin University of Sport, Tianjin 301617, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yoon Hyuk","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kyung Hee University, Yongin 17104, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.2165\/00007256-200535050-00005","article-title":"The role of biomechanics in maximising distance and accuracy of golf shots","volume":"35","author":"Hume","year":"2005","journal-title":"Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1080\/14763141.2012.738699","article-title":"Regulation of reaction forces during the golf swing","volume":"12","author":"Munaretto","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sports Biomech."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ancillao, A., Tedesco, S., Barton, J., and O\u2019Flynn, B. 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