{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,2]],"date-time":"2026-10-02T21:19:29Z","timestamp":1790975969417,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,4]],"date-time":"2026-03-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1772582400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Romanian Ministry of Research, Innovation and Digitalization","award":["31N"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["31N"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biomimetics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This paper investigates the flight kinematics and unsteady aerodynamics of butterfly flight using high-speed schlieren imaging. Butterfly trajectories are reconstructed to examine flight control mechanisms, with particular emphasis on thorax-driven manoeuvring and body reorientation. By reconstructing free-flight trajectories utilizing image recognition algorithms, we isolate the mechanisms of flight control, with particular emphasis on how thoracic oscillation drives manoeuvring and body reorientation. Phase-resolved analysis reveals distinct wingbeat modes, including clap-and-fling motions associated with hovering and low-speed ascent. Schlieren visualization further captures a detailed view of the wake topology, displaying the formation and evolution of wingtip vortices during the downstroke, as well as attached and entrained flow structures during cupped wing configurations. The results demonstrate the strong coupling between body dynamics, wing kinematics, and wake structure, highlighting how butterflies combine aerodynamic and inertial mechanisms to achieve efficient lift generation and control. These findings provide biomimetic insights relevant to the design of flapping wing micro air vehicles, particularly for low-speed flight, hover efficiency, and passive stability and control through body\u2013wing coupling.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/biomimetics11030184","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,4]],"date-time":"2026-03-04T13:11:36Z","timestamp":1772629896000},"page":"184","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Butterfly Clap\u2013Fling Flight Mechanisms Observed by Schlieren Imaging for the Design of Bio-Inspired Micro Air Vehicles"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-2437-7288","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emilia-Georgiana","family":"Pris\u0103cariu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Romanian Research and Development Institute for Gas Turbines, 220D Iuliu Maniu Blvd., 061126 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-0894-824X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sergiu","family":"Str\u0103til\u0103","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Romanian Research and Development Institute for Gas Turbines, 220D Iuliu Maniu Blvd., 061126 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2532-8013","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Oana","family":"Dumitrescu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Romanian Research and Development Institute for Gas Turbines, 220D Iuliu Maniu Blvd., 061126 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mihail","family":"Sima","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Romanian Research and Development Institute for Gas Turbines, 220D Iuliu Maniu Blvd., 061126 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-3674-6162","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Raluca Andreea","family":"Ro\u0219u","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Romanian Research and Development Institute for Gas Turbines, 220D Iuliu Maniu Blvd., 061126 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3508-8941","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Iulian","family":"Vl\u0103duc\u0103","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Romanian Research and Development Institute for Gas Turbines, 220D Iuliu Maniu Blvd., 061126 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"20160096","article-title":"Correction to \u201cAerodynamics, sensing and control of insect-scale flapping-wing flight\u201d","volume":"472","author":"Shyy","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proc. 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