{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]],"date-time":"2026-09-24T20:45:30Z","timestamp":1790282730157,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780272000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Key Project of Hunan Provincial Department of Education","award":["21A0494"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["21A0494"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002767","name":"Natural Science Foundation of Hunan Province, China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2022JJ50314"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022JJ50314"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002767","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biomimetics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Conventional P300-based brain\u2013computer interfaces (BCIs) commonly rely on two-dimensional (2D) visual flashing, which may induce visual fatigue and limit immersion, thereby restricting long-term usability and system performance. To address these limitations, this study proposes an immersive P300-BCI framework integrating a three-dimensional morphological stimulation paradigm, termed 3D-Morph, with self-adaptive Bayesian linear discriminant analysis (SA-BLDA). Instead of using color or luminance flickering, the proposed paradigm employs dynamic 2D-to-3D morphological transformations of virtual objects in a virtual reality environment to enhance target-related event-related potentials while preserving visual immersion. SA-BLDA further adjusts the number of stimulation rounds according to classification confidence to balance accuracy and interaction efficiency. Experiments with 24 participants showed that the proposed system outperformed the conventional 2D paradigm. In offline analysis, the proposed method achieved an average classification accuracy of 94.17% and an information transfer rate (ITR) of 25.50 bits\/min, significantly outperforming the 2D paradigm (87.29% accuracy, 22.75 bits\/min ITR, both p&lt;0.001, Cohen\u2019s d\u22651.22). In online experiments, the 3D-Morph paradigm achieved an average accuracy of 91.46% and an ITR of 37.23 bits\/min, compared with 83.96% and 28.74 bits\/min for the conventional 2D paradigm (both p&lt;0.01, Cohen\u2019s d\u22651.14). The average response time was reduced by 0.46 s (p&lt;0.01, Cohen\u2019s d=0.78), and the processing time per stimulation round (PT) of SA-BLDA was significantly reduced from 48.54\u00b110.47 ms in the 2D paradigm to 26.40\u00b19.41 ms in the 3D-Morph paradigm (p&lt;0.01, Cohen\u2019s d=2.34), corresponding to a 45.61% reduction in computational time per round. NASA-TLX evaluations indicated a significantly lower subjective workload across all dimensions (all p&lt;0.05, Cohen\u2019s d\u22650.76). These results demonstrate that combining 3D-Morph stimulation with SA-BLDA can significantly improve classification performance, interaction efficiency, and user experience, providing a feasible framework for immersive and practical P300-BCI applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/biomimetics11060381","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T17:11:01Z","timestamp":1780333861000},"page":"381","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["An Immersive P300 Brain\u2013Computer Interface Based on 3D Morphological Stimuli and Self-Adaptive Bayesian Linear Discriminant Analysis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-8318-8307","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Junhong","family":"Luo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Artificial Intelligence, Guangzhou Maritime University, Guangzhou 510725, China"},{"name":"School of Mathematics and Statistics, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510520, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-4984-0455","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mengnan","family":"Zhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Artificial Intelligence, Guangzhou Maritime University, Guangzhou 510725, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yongbo","family":"Xiao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Architecture and Art Design, Lanzhou University of Technology, Lanzhou 730050, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yuanhao","family":"Long","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Artificial Intelligence, Guangzhou Maritime University, Guangzhou 510725, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiaoting","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Artificial Intelligence, Guangzhou Maritime University, Guangzhou 510725, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hui","family":"Cao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Artificial Intelligence, Guangzhou Maritime University, Guangzhou 510725, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Javid","family":"Atai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jing","family":"Xiao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Artificial Intelligence, Guangzhou Maritime University, Guangzhou 510725, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xuesong","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mathematics and Statistics, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510520, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mridha, M.F., Das, S.C., Kabir, M.M., Lima, A.A., Islam, M.R., and Watanobe, Y. 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