{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,11]],"date-time":"2026-06-11T01:05:52Z","timestamp":1781139952562,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":84,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,5]],"date-time":"2020-08-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1596585600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biosensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The illegal use of explosives by terrorists and other criminals is an increasing issue in public spaces, such as airports, railway stations, highways, sports venues, theaters, and other large buildings. Security in these environments can be achieved by different means, including the installation of scanners and other analytical devices to detect ultra-small traces of explosives in a very short time-frame to be able to take action as early as possible to prevent the detonation of such devices. Unfortunately, an ideal explosive detection system still does not exist, which means that a compromise is needed in practice. Most detection devices lack the extreme analytical sensitivity, which is nevertheless necessary due to the low vapor pressure of nearly all explosives. In addition, the rate of false positives needs to be virtually zero, which is also very difficult to achieve. Here we present an immunosensor system based on kinetic competition, which is known to be very fast and may even overcome affinity limitation, which impairs the performance of many traditional competitive assays. This immunosensor consists of a monolithic glass column with a vast excess of immobilized hapten, which traps the fluorescently labeled antibody as long as no explosive is present. In the case of the explosive 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT), some binding sites of the antibody will be blocked, which leads to an immediate breakthrough of the labeled protein, detectable by highly sensitive laser-induced fluorescence with the help of a Peltier-cooled complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) camera. Liquid handling is performed with high-precision syringe pumps and chip-based mixing-devices and flow-cells. The system achieved limits of detection of 1 pM (1 ppt) of the fluorescent label and around 100 pM (20 ppt) of TNT. The total assay time is less than 8 min. A cross-reactivity test with 5000 pM solutions showed no signal by pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN), 1,3,5-trinitroperhydro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX), and octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine (HMX). This immunosensor belongs to the most sensitive and fastest detectors for TNT with no significant cross-reactivity by non-related compounds. The consumption of the labeled antibody is surprisingly low: 1 mg of the reagent would be sufficient for more than one year of continuous biosensor operation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bios10080089","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,5]],"date-time":"2020-08-05T06:02:21Z","timestamp":1596607341000},"page":"89","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Fast Detection of 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene (TNT) at ppt Level by a Laser-Induced Immunofluorometric Biosensor"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Martin","family":"Paul","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division 1.5 Protein Analysis, Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing (BAM), Richard-Willst\u00e4tter-Strasse 11, 12489 Berlin, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Georg","family":"Tscheuschner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division 1.5 Protein Analysis, Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing (BAM), Richard-Willst\u00e4tter-Strasse 11, 12489 Berlin, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stefan","family":"Herrmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division 1.5 Protein Analysis, Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing (BAM), Richard-Willst\u00e4tter-Strasse 11, 12489 Berlin, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2767-2029","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michael G.","family":"Weller","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division 1.5 Protein Analysis, Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing (BAM), Richard-Willst\u00e4tter-Strasse 11, 12489 Berlin, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2499","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1771493","article-title":"Instrumentation for trace detection of high explosives","volume":"75","author":"Moore","year":"2004","journal-title":"Rev. Sci. Instrum."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2011.11.043","article-title":"Current trends in explosive detection techniques","volume":"88","author":"Caygill","year":"2012","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-015-9040-4","article-title":"Advances in explosives analysis-part I: Animal, chemical, ion, and mechanical methods","volume":"408","author":"Brown","year":"2016","journal-title":"Anal. Bioanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16586","DOI":"10.3390\/s140916586","article-title":"Towards an Electronic Dog Nose: Surface Plasmon Resonance Immunosensor for Security and Safety","volume":"14","author":"Onodera","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sensors (Basel)"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"515","DOI":"10.1016\/S0039-9140(00)00565-8","article-title":"A critical review of ion mobility spectrometry for the detection of explosives and explosive related compounds","volume":"54","author":"Ewing","year":"2001","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aca.2013.07.070","article-title":"Evaluation of false positive responses by mass spectrometry and ion mobility spectrometry for the detection of trace explosives in complex samples","volume":"795","author":"Crawford","year":"2013","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1261","DOI":"10.1039\/C1CS15173H","article-title":"Optical chemosensors and reagents to detect explosives","volume":"41","author":"Salinas","year":"2012","journal-title":"Chem. Soc. Rev."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"561","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2009.09.061","article-title":"Simple and sensitive online detection of triacetone triperoxide explosive","volume":"143","author":"Lubczyk","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sens. Actuat. B-Chem."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1002\/cplu.201100080","article-title":"Scaffold-Optimized Dendrimers for the Detection of the Triacetone Triperoxide Explosive Using Quartz Crystal Microbalances","volume":"77","author":"Lubczyk","year":"2012","journal-title":"Chempluschem"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4834","DOI":"10.1021\/ja210728c","article-title":"Attogram Sensing of Trinitrotoluene with a Self-Assembled Molecular Gelator","volume":"134","author":"Kartha","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5321","DOI":"10.1021\/ja9742996","article-title":"Porous shape persistent fluorescent polymer films: An approach to TNT sensory materials","volume":"120","author":"Yang","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1016\/j.synthmet.2004.04.003","article-title":"Fluorescent conjugated polymer films as TNT chemosensors","volume":"144","author":"Chang","year":"2004","journal-title":"Synth. Met."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3458","DOI":"10.1021\/ac800060f","article-title":"Amine-capped ZnS-Mn2+ nanocrystals for fluorescence detection of trace TNT explosive","volume":"80","author":"Tu","year":"2008","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2012.08.048","article-title":"Fluorescence resonance energy transfer quenching at the surface of graphene quantum dots for ultrasensitive detection of TNT","volume":"101","author":"Fan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"895","DOI":"10.1039\/C2CC36872B","article-title":"Cyanide modulated fluorescent supramolecular assembly of a hexaphenylbenzene derivative for detection of trinitrotoluene at the attogram level","volume":"49","author":"Bhalla","year":"2013","journal-title":"Chem. Commun."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10057","DOI":"10.1039\/C4DT00490F","article-title":"Fluorescent detection of TNT and 4-nitrophenol by BSA Au nanoclusters","volume":"43","author":"Yang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Dalton Trans."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3978","DOI":"10.1039\/c3dt52777h","article-title":"Fabrication of magnetically separable fluorescent terbium-based MOF nanospheres for highly selective trace-level detection of TNT","volume":"43","author":"Qian","year":"2014","journal-title":"Dalton Trans."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10164","DOI":"10.1002\/slct.201902639","article-title":"Efficient Sensing of Trinitrotoluene Using a Photoluminescent Benzo[a]fluorenone Derivative","volume":"4","author":"Mandal","year":"2019","journal-title":"Chemistryselect"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2557","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-008-2194-6","article-title":"Luminescence-based methods for sensing and detection of explosives","volume":"391","author":"Meaney","year":"2008","journal-title":"Anal. Bioanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"571","DOI":"10.1039\/b717933m","article-title":"A review of biosensors and biologically-inspired systems for explosives detection","volume":"133","author":"Smith","year":"2008","journal-title":"Analyst"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112030","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2020.112030","article-title":"A bioinspired peptide matrix for the detection of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT)","volume":"153","author":"Komikawa","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zarejousheghani, M., Lorenz, W., Vanninen, P., Alizadeh, T., Cammerer, M., and Borsdorf, H. (2019). Molecularly Imprinted Polymer Materials as Selective Recognition Sorbents for Explosives: A Review. Polymers, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym11050888"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"960","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2014.06.137","article-title":"1,3,5-Trinitrotoluene detection by a molecularly imprinted polymer sensor based on electropolymerization of a microporous-metal-organic framework","volume":"207","author":"Guo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sens. Actuat. B-Chem."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"737","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2011.01.039","article-title":"Electrochemical detection of TNT with in-line pre-concentration using imprinted diethylbenzene-bridged periodic mesoporous organosilicas","volume":"155","author":"Trammell","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sens. Actuat. B-Chem."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4015","DOI":"10.1021\/ac902838c","article-title":"Detection of Nitroaromatic Explosives Using a Fluorescent-Labeled Imprinted Polymer","volume":"82","author":"Stringer","year":"2010","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-002-1713-0","article-title":"Analysis of aqueous 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) using a fluorescent displacement immunoassay","volume":"375","author":"Goldman","year":"2003","journal-title":"Anal. Bioanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"876","DOI":"10.3390\/s100100876","article-title":"Fluorescence-based Sensing of 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene (TNT) Using a Multi-channeled Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) Microimmunosensor","volume":"10","author":"Charles","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sensors (Basel)"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aca.2004.08.038","article-title":"Microcapillary reversed-displacement immunosensor for trace level detection of TNT in seawater","volume":"525","author":"Charles","year":"2004","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1750","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2004.06.044","article-title":"Surface plasmon resonance immunosensor for highly sensitive detection of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene","volume":"20","author":"Shankaran","year":"2005","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"39","article-title":"Displacement Immunosensor Based on Surface Plasmon Resonance for Rapid and Highly Sensitive Detection of 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene","volume":"23","author":"Onodera","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sens. Mater."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1016\/S0003-2697(02)00288-9","article-title":"Detection of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene in seawater using a reversed-displacement immunosensor","volume":"310","author":"Green","year":"2002","journal-title":"Anal. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2008.03.005","article-title":"Surface plasmon resonance immunosensor using Au nanoparticle for detection of TNT","volume":"133","author":"Kawaguchi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Sens. Actuat. B-Chem."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3561","DOI":"10.1021\/ac00072a005","article-title":"Continuous-Flow Immunosensor for Detection of Explosives","volume":"65","author":"Whelan","year":"1993","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"841","DOI":"10.1021\/ac010662m","article-title":"Conjugation of luminescent quantum dots with antibodies using an engineered adaptor protein to provide new reagents for fluoroimmunoassays","volume":"74","author":"Goldman","year":"2002","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1016\/S0925-4005(97)80244-4","article-title":"Environmental immunoassay for the explosive RDX using a fluorescent dye-labeled antigen and the continuous-flow immunosensor","volume":"39","author":"Bart","year":"1997","journal-title":"Sens. Actuat. B-Chem."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-1759(00)00301-X","article-title":"Trace detection of explosives using a membrane-based displacement immunoassay","volume":"246","author":"Rabbany","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Immunol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7323","DOI":"10.3390\/s100807323","article-title":"Small Molecule Immunosensing Using Surface Plasmon Resonance","volume":"10","author":"Mitchell","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"209","article-title":"Development of Sensor Surfaces Using Poly-(N-vinylformamide) for Sensitive Detection of 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene by Displacement Method on a Surface Plasmon Resonance Sensor","volume":"28","author":"Onodera","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sens. Mater."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4117","DOI":"10.1002\/chem.201300031","article-title":"Selective, Sensitive, and Rapid Analysis with Lateral-Flow Assays Based on Antibody-Gated Dye-Delivery Systems: The Example of Triacetone Triperoxide","volume":"19","author":"Climent","year":"2013","journal-title":"Chem.-Eur. J."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4245","DOI":"10.1021\/ac300606n","article-title":"Electrochemical Aptamer-Based Sandwich Assays for the Detection of Explosives","volume":"84","author":"Ho","year":"2012","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2824","DOI":"10.1021\/nn103324p","article-title":"Selective and Sensitive TNT Sensors Using Biomimetic Polydiacetylene-Coated CNT-FETs","volume":"5","author":"Kim","year":"2011","journal-title":"Acs Nano"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aca.2012.10.051","article-title":"Comparison of an antibody and its recombinant derivative for the detection of the small molecule explosive 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene","volume":"759","author":"Liu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1919","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-005-3294-1","article-title":"Development of new rat monoclonal antibodies with different selectivities and sensitivities for 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) and other nitroaromatic compounds","volume":"382","author":"Kramer","year":"2005","journal-title":"Anal. Bioanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jim.2003.09.010","article-title":"Characterization and performance evaluation of in vivo and in vitro produced monoclonal anti-TNT antibodies for the detection of TNT","volume":"284","author":"Charles","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Immunol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1007\/s002160051309","article-title":"Characterization of a monoclonal TNT-antibody by measurement of the cross-reactivities of nitroaromatic compounds","volume":"364","author":"Zeck","year":"1999","journal-title":"Fresen. J. Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1016\/0003-2670(95)00318-T","article-title":"Broadening the Antibody Specificity by Hapten Design for an Enzyme-Linked Immunoassay as an Improved Screening Method for the Determination of Nitroaromatic Residues in Soils","volume":"315","author":"Julicher","year":"1995","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1002\/jmr.2511","article-title":"Development of highly sensitive and selective antibodies for the detection of the explosive pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN) by bioisosteric replacement","volume":"29","author":"Hesse","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Mol. Recognit."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1002\/jmr.2162","article-title":"Extremely sensitive and selective antibodies against the explosive 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene by rational design of a structurally optimized hapten","volume":"25","author":"Ramin","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Mol. Recognit."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15418","DOI":"10.1021\/la1018339","article-title":"Triacetone Triperoxide (TATP): Hapten Design and Development of Antibodies","volume":"26","author":"Walter","year":"2010","journal-title":"Langmuir"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.3390\/bios1030093","article-title":"A Novel Immunoreagent for the Specific and Sensitive Detection of the Explosive Triacetone Triperoxide (TATP)","volume":"1","author":"Walter","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biosensors"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jim.2008.08.001","article-title":"TNT detection using llama antibodies and a two-step competitive fluid array immunoassay","volume":"339","author":"Anderson","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Immunol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1089\/mab.2015.0010","article-title":"Sub-Nanogram Detection of RDX Explosive by Monoclonal Antibodies","volume":"34","author":"Ulaeto","year":"2015","journal-title":"Monoclon. Antib. Immunodiagn. Immunother."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1093\/clinchem\/30.3.417","article-title":"A Highly Sensitive Affinity-Column-Mediated Immunometric Assay, as Exemplified by Digoxin","volume":"30","author":"Freytag","year":"1984","journal-title":"Clin. Chem."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1494","DOI":"10.1093\/clinchem\/30.9.1494","article-title":"Affinity-Column-Mediated Immunoenzymometric Assays\u2014Influence of Affinity-Column Ligand and Valency of Antibody Enzyme Conjugates","volume":"30","author":"Freytag","year":"1984","journal-title":"Clin. Chem."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1809","DOI":"10.1093\/clinchem\/30.11.1809","article-title":"An Automated, Affinity-Column-Mediated, Enzyme-Linked Immunometric Assay for Digoxin on the Du-Pont Aca Discrete Clinical Analyzer","volume":"30","author":"Leflar","year":"1984","journal-title":"Clin. Chem."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4624","DOI":"10.1021\/ac971388s","article-title":"Automated amplified flow immunoassay for cocaine","volume":"70","author":"Bauer","year":"1998","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"635","DOI":"10.1007\/s002160051558","article-title":"Immunochromatographic techniques\u2014A critical review","volume":"366","author":"Weller","year":"2000","journal-title":"Fresen. J. Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9673(97)00646-8","article-title":"Theoretical concepts of online liquid chromatographic biochemical detection systems.1. Detection systems based on labelled ligands","volume":"787","author":"Oosterkamp","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Chromatogr. A"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9673(97)89244-8","article-title":"Theoretical concepts of online liquid chromatographic biochemical detection systems.2. Detection systems based on labelled affinity proteins","volume":"787","author":"Oosterkamp","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Chromatogr. A"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1152","DOI":"10.1021\/ac00057a009","article-title":"Noncompetitive Flow-Injection Immunoassay for a Hapten, Alpha-(Difluoromethyl)Ornithine","volume":"65","author":"Gunaratna","year":"1993","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5779","DOI":"10.1021\/ac000853+","article-title":"Non-competitive immunoassay of small analytes at the femtomolar level by affinity probe capillary electrophoresis: Direct analysis of digoxin using a uniform-labeled scFv immunoreagent","volume":"72","author":"Hafner","year":"2000","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01246843","article-title":"Flow injection immunoassays: A review","volume":"129","author":"Fintschenko","year":"1998","journal-title":"Mikrochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/S0003-2670(02)00302-1","article-title":"Optimization and development of a high-performance liquid chromatography-based one-site immunometric assay with chemiluminescence detection","volume":"470","author":"Oates","year":"2002","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chroma.2014.09.026","article-title":"Development of microcolumn-based one-site immunometric assays for protein biomarkers","volume":"1366","author":"Pfaunmiller","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Chromatogr. A"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-1759(97)00144-0","article-title":"Design of non-competitive flow injection enzyme immunoassays for determination of haptens: Application to digoxigenin","volume":"208","author":"Lovgren","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Immunol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1016\/0165-2478(92)90041-L","article-title":"Fast Filtration Enzyme-Immunoassay for Haptens","volume":"33","author":"Danilova","year":"1992","journal-title":"Immunol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3392","DOI":"10.1021\/ac001328d","article-title":"An immunoassay for small analytes with theoretical detection limits","volume":"73","author":"Ohmura","year":"2001","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1006\/abio.1999.4176","article-title":"Automated kinetic exclusion assays to quantify protein binding interactions in homogeneous solution","volume":"272","author":"Blake","year":"1999","journal-title":"Anal. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tscheuschner, G., Schwaar, T., and Weller, M.G. (2020). Fast Confirmation of Antibody Identity by MALDI-TOF MS Fingerprints. Antibodies (Basel), 9.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202002.0207.v1"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Paul, M., and Weller, M.G. (2020). Antibody Screening by Microarray Technology\u2014Direct Identification of Selective High-Affinity Clones. Antibodies (Basel), 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/antib9010001"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1061","DOI":"10.1021\/ac0157268","article-title":"Demonstration of four immunoassay formats using the array biosensor","volume":"74","author":"Sapsford","year":"2002","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1188","DOI":"10.1021\/ac020599g","article-title":"Homogeneous immunoassay for detection of TNT and its analogues on a microfabricated capillary electrophoresis chip","volume":"75","author":"Bromberg","year":"2003","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1895","DOI":"10.1002\/elps.200305818","article-title":"Multichannel homogeneous immunoassay for detection of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) using a microfabricated capillary array electrophoresis chip","volume":"25","author":"Bromberg","year":"2004","journal-title":"Electrophoresis"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2279","DOI":"10.1021\/ac051995c","article-title":"TNT detection using multiplexed liquid array displacement immunoassays","volume":"78","author":"Anderson","year":"2006","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"554","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2006.11.020","article-title":"Fabrication of a novel immunosensor using functionalized self-assembled monolayer for trace level detection of TNT by surface plasmon resonance","volume":"72","author":"Kawaguchi","year":"2007","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1313","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-006-0699-4","article-title":"Evaluation of the molecular recognition of monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies for sensitive detection of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) by indirect competitive surface plasmon resonance immunoassay","volume":"386","author":"Shankaran","year":"2006","journal-title":"Anal. Bioanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2888","DOI":"10.1021\/es062333n","article-title":"Development of a luminex based competitive immunoassay for 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT)","volume":"41","author":"Anderson","year":"2007","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"687","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-009-3264-0","article-title":"Development of a chemiluminescent ELISA and a colloidal gold-based LFIA for TNT detection","volume":"396","author":"Girotti","year":"2010","journal-title":"Anal. Bioanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"737","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-012-6137-x","article-title":"Competitive amperometric immunosensor based on covalent linking of a protein conjugate to dendrimer-functionalised nanogold substrate for the determination of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene","volume":"405","author":"Giannetto","year":"2013","journal-title":"Anal. Bioanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.4172\/2155-6210.1000115","article-title":"Sensitive Detection of TNT using Competition Assay on Quartz Crystal Microbalance","volume":"3","author":"Wang","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Charles, P.T., Wadhwa, V., Kouyate, A., Mesa-Donado, K.J., Adams, A.A., Deschamps, J.R., and Kusterbeck, A.W. (2018). A High Aspect Ratio Bifurcated 128-Microchannel Microfluidic Device for Environmental Monitoring of Explosives. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18051568"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9294","DOI":"10.3390\/s130709294","article-title":"Fabrication of an SPR Sensor Surface with Antifouling Properties for Highly Sensitive Detection of 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene Using Surface-Initiated Atom Transfer Polymerization","volume":"13","author":"Yatabe","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sensors (Basel)"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2008.03.042","article-title":"Development of an oligo(ethylene glycol)-based SPR immunosensor for TNT detection","volume":"24","author":"Mizuta","year":"2008","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_84","first-page":"261","article-title":"Novel DNP-KLH protein conjugate surface for sensitive detection of TNT on SPR immunosensor","volume":"19","author":"Singh","year":"2007","journal-title":"Sens. Mater."}],"container-title":["Biosensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6374\/10\/8\/89\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T09:54:24Z","timestamp":1760176464000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6374\/10\/8\/89"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,5]]},"references-count":84,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,8]]}},"alternative-id":["bios10080089"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/bios10080089","relation":{"has-preprint":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.20944\/preprints202007.0039.v1","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["2079-6374"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-6374","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,5]]}}}