{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,8]],"date-time":"2026-07-08T00:26:40Z","timestamp":1783470400514,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":112,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,12]],"date-time":"2021-02-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1613088000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100008902","name":"Los Alamos National Laboratory","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["20190392ER"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20190392ER"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100008902","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biosensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Influenza virus poses a threat to global health by causing seasonal outbreaks as well as three pandemics in the 20th century. In humans, disease is primarily caused by influenza A and B viruses, while influenza C virus causes mild disease mostly in children. Influenza D is an emerging virus found in cattle and pigs. To mitigate the morbidity and mortality associated with influenza, rapid and accurate diagnostic tests need to be deployed. However, the high genetic diversity displayed by influenza viruses presents a challenge to the development of a robust diagnostic test. Nucleic acid-based tests are more accurate than rapid antigen tests for influenza and are therefore better candidates to be used in both diagnostic and surveillance applications. Here, we review various nucleic acid-based techniques that have been applied towards the detection of influenza viruses in order to evaluate their utility as both diagnostic and surveillance tools. We discuss both traditional as well as novel methods to detect influenza viruses by covering techniques that require nucleic acid amplification or direct detection of viral RNA as well as comparing advantages and limitations for each method. There has been substantial progress in the development of nucleic acid-based sensing techniques for the detection of influenza virus. However, there is still an urgent need for a rapid and reliable influenza diagnostic test that can be used at point-of-care in order to enhance responsiveness to both seasonal and pandemic influenza outbreaks.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bios11020047","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,12]],"date-time":"2021-02-12T18:45:00Z","timestamp":1613155500000},"page":"47","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":25,"title":["Nucleic Acid-Based Sensing Techniques for Diagnostics and Surveillance of Influenza"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9277-2937","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Samantha J.","family":"Courtney","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Physical Chemistry and Applied Spectroscopy, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Chemistry Division, Los Alamos, NM 87545, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1137-1128","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zachary R.","family":"Stromberg","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Physical Chemistry and Applied Spectroscopy, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Chemistry Division, Los Alamos, NM 87545, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6215-4871","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jessica Z.","family":"Kubicek-Sutherland","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Physical Chemistry and Applied Spectroscopy, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Chemistry Division, Los Alamos, NM 87545, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1111\/irv.12533","article-title":"Advances in measuring influenza burden of disease","volume":"12","author":"Lee","year":"2018","journal-title":"Influ. Other Respir. Viruses"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1128\/MMBR.00004-08","article-title":"Cross-Species Virus Transmission and the Emergence of New Epidemic Diseases","volume":"72","author":"Parrish","year":"2008","journal-title":"Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1469","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2018.304586","article-title":"100 Years of Medical Countermeasures and Pandemic Influenza Preparedness","volume":"108","author":"Jester","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1141","DOI":"10.1080\/14760584.2017.1379396","article-title":"Vaccine approaches conferring cross-protection against influenza viruses","volume":"16","author":"Vemula","year":"2017","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Vaccines"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trsl.2020.01.005","article-title":"Next-generation direct-acting influenza therapeutics","volume":"220","author":"Toots","year":"2020","journal-title":"Transl. Res."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.2147\/IDR.S105473","article-title":"Drug resistance in influenza A virus: The epidemiology and management","volume":"10","author":"Hussain","year":"2017","journal-title":"Infect. Drug Resist."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.1039\/C6LC01074A","article-title":"Development of a point-of-care diagnostic for influenza detection with antiviral treatment effectiveness indication","volume":"17","author":"Murdock","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lab Chip"},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2021, January 09). Overview of Influenza Surveillance in the United States, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/flu\/weekly\/overview.htm."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1093\/bjaceaccp\/mkn041","article-title":"Clinical tests: Sensitivity and specificity","volume":"8","author":"Lalkhen","year":"2008","journal-title":"Contin. Educ. Anaesth. Crit. Care Pain"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vemula, S.V., Zhao, J., Liu, J., Wang, X., Biswas, S., and Hewlett, I. (2016). Current Approaches for Diagnosis of Influenza Virus Infections in Humans. Viruses, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/v8040096"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e02084-17","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02084-17","article-title":"Influenza C and D Viruses Package Eight Organized Ribonucleoprotein Complexes","volume":"92","author":"Nakatsu","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Asha, K., and Kumar, B. (2019). Emerging Influenza D Virus Threat: What We Know so Far!. J. Clin. Med., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm8020192"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1111\/irv.12412","article-title":"The ecology and adaptive evolution of influenza A interspecies transmission","volume":"11","author":"Joseph","year":"2016","journal-title":"Influ. Other Respir. Viruses"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1039\/C9SC05149J","article-title":"Influenza as a molecular walker","volume":"11","author":"Hamming","year":"2019","journal-title":"Chem. Sci."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1051","DOI":"10.1126\/science.288.5468.1051","article-title":"Influenza B virus in seals","volume":"288","author":"Osterhaus","year":"2000","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1556","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2309.170342","article-title":"Serologic Evidence for Influenza C and D Virus among Ruminants and Camelids, Africa, 1991\u20132015","volume":"23","author":"Salem","year":"2017","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1173","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1348-0421.1987.tb01351.x","article-title":"Distribution of the Antibody to Influenza C Virus in Dogs and Pigs in Yamagata Prefecture, Japan","volume":"31","author":"Ohwada","year":"1987","journal-title":"Microbiol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1099\/0022-1317-64-1-177","article-title":"Isolation of Influenza C Virus from Pigs and Experimental Infection of Pigs with Influenza C Virus","volume":"64","author":"Yuanji","year":"1983","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7043","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00662-12","article-title":"The Influenza A Virus PB2, PA, NP, and M Segments Play a Pivotal Role during Genome Packaging","volume":"86","author":"Gao","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39668","DOI":"10.1038\/srep39668","article-title":"The differentiated airway epithelium infected by influenza viruses maintains the barrier function despite a dramatic loss of ciliated cells","volume":"6","author":"Wu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.3121\/cmr.2012.1084","article-title":"Comparison of Nasal and Nasopharyngeal Swabs for Influenza Detection in Adults","volume":"10","author":"Irving","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clin. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-422X-7-75","article-title":"Influenza A viral loads in respiratory samples collected from patients infected with pandemic H1N1, seasonal H1N1 and H3N2 viruses","volume":"7","author":"Ngaosuwankul","year":"2010","journal-title":"Virol. J."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3439","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.00886-09","article-title":"Identification of Respiratory Viruses in Adults: Nasopharyngeal versus Oropharyngeal Sampling","volume":"47","author":"Lieberman","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.01704-16","article-title":"Comparison between Saliva and Nasopharyngeal Swab Specimens for Detection of Respiratory Viruses by Multiplex Reverse Transcription-PCR","volume":"55","author":"Kim","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00027-19","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.00027-19","article-title":"Comparison of Respiratory Specimen Collection Methods for Detection of Influenza Virus Infection by Reverse Transcription-PCR: A Literature Review","volume":"57","author":"Spencer","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7590","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01623-05","article-title":"Kinetics of Influenza A Virus Infection in Humans","volume":"80","author":"Baccam","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1891","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.24549","article-title":"Detection of influenza by real time RT-PCR is not affected by delays in respiratory specimen processing","volume":"88","author":"Dare","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"1","article-title":"DNA, RNA, and Protein Extraction: The Past and The Present","volume":"2009","author":"Tan","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5439","DOI":"10.1101\/pdb.prot5439","article-title":"Purification of RNA Using TRIzol (TRI Reagent)","volume":"2010","author":"Rio","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cold Spring Harb. Protoc."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jviromet.2010.10.024","article-title":"Comparison of commercial systems for extraction of nucleic acids from DNA\/RNA respiratory pathogens","volume":"171","author":"Yang","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Virol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cui, F.R., Wang, J., Opal, S.M., and Tripathi, A. (2016). Isolating Influenza RNA from Clinical Samples Using Microfluidic Oil-Water Interfaces. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0149522"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2005.08.004","article-title":"Nucleic acid amplification-based techniques for pathogen detection and identification","volume":"6","author":"Monis","year":"2006","journal-title":"Infect. Genet. Evol."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Souf, S. (2016). Recent advances in diagnostic testing for viral infections. Bioscience Horizons. Int. J. Stud. Res., 9."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"492","DOI":"10.1086\/600383","article-title":"Viral Loads and Duration of Viral Shedding in Adult Patients Hospitalized with Influenza","volume":"200","author":"Lee","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"344","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.05016-11","article-title":"Update on Influenza Diagnostics: Lessons from the Novel H1N1 Influenza A Pandemic","volume":"25","author":"Kumar","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1007\/s13206-019-3302-8","article-title":"Microwell Array-based Digital PCR for Influenza Virus Detection","volume":"13","author":"Ahrberg","year":"2019","journal-title":"BioChip J."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virusres.2009.10.011","article-title":"Detection of human novel influenza A (H1N1) viruses using multi-fluorescent real-time RT-PCR","volume":"147","author":"Dong","year":"2010","journal-title":"Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diagmicrobio.2019.04.011","article-title":"Development of a multiplex real-time RT-PCR assay for simultaneous detection and differentiation of influenza A, B, C, and D viruses","volume":"95","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2064","DOI":"10.1039\/c1an15066a","article-title":"Rapid detection for primary screening of influenza A virus: Microfluidic RT-PCR chip and electrochemical DNA sensor","volume":"136","author":"Yamanaka","year":"2011","journal-title":"Analyst"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, Y., Abafogi, A.T., Tran, B.M., Kim, J., Lee, J., Chen, Z., Bae, P.K., Park, K., Shin, Y.-B., and Van Noort, D. (2020). Integrated Microfluidic Preconcentration and Nucleic Amplification System for Detection of Influenza A Virus H1N1 in Saliva. Micromachines, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/mi11020203"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cao, Q., Mahalanabis, M., Chang, J., Carey, B., Hsieh, C., Stanley, A., Odell, C.A., Mitchell, P., Feldman, J., and Pollock, N.R. (2012). Microfluidic Chip for Molecular Amplification of Influenza A RNA in Human Respiratory Specimens. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0033176"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1277","DOI":"10.1039\/C8LC01369A","article-title":"Lee, G.-B. An integrated microfluidic system for rapid detection and multiple subtyping of influenza A viruses by using glycan-coated magnetic beads and RT-PCR","volume":"19","author":"Shen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lab Chip"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"728","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.01481-09","article-title":"Development of a Reverse Transcription-Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification Assay for Detection of Pandemic (H1N1) 2009 Virus as a Novel Molecular Method for Diagnosis of Pandemic Influenza in Resource-Limited Settings","volume":"48","author":"Kubo","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-019-4277-8","article-title":"Rapid and simple colorimetric detection of multiple influenza viruses infecting humans using a reverse transcriptional loop-mediated isothermal amplification (RT-LAMP) diagnostic platform","volume":"19","author":"Ahn","year":"2019","journal-title":"BMC Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcv.2013.06.006","article-title":"Multiplex loop-mediated isothermal amplification (M-LAMP) assay for the detection of influenza A\/H1, A\/H3 and influenza B can provide a specimen-to-result diagnosis in 40min with single genome copy sensitivity","volume":"58","author":"Mahony","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Clin. Virol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1166","DOI":"10.1039\/c0lc00519c","article-title":"Point-of-care testing system enabling 30 min detection of influenza genes","volume":"11","author":"Abe","year":"2011","journal-title":"Lab Chip"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3457","DOI":"10.1039\/c3an00100h","article-title":"A colorimetric method for H1N1 DNA detection using rolling circle amplification","volume":"138","author":"Xing","year":"2013","journal-title":"Analyst"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111485","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2019.111485","article-title":"Integration of rolling circle amplification and optomagnetic detection on a polymer chip","volume":"142","author":"Garbarino","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jviromet.2010.09.014","article-title":"Development and validation of a commercial real-time NASBA assay for the rapid confirmation of influenza A H5N1 virus in clinical samples","volume":"170","author":"Moore","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Virol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jviromet.2009.10.025","article-title":"Detection of novel swine origin influenza A virus (H1N1) by real-time nucleic acid sequence-based amplification","volume":"163","author":"Ge","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Virol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3608","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.00981-10","article-title":"Nucleic Acid Dipstick Test for Molecular Diagnosis of Pandemic H1N1","volume":"48","author":"Wu","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"826","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molcel.2019.09.013","article-title":"Programmable Inhibition and Detection of RNA Viruses Using Cas13","volume":"76","author":"Freije","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mol. Cell"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mayuramart, O., Nimsamer, P., Rattanaburi, S., Chantaravisoot, N., Khongnomnan, K., Chansaenroj, J., Puenpa, J., Suntronwong, N., Vichaiwattana, P., and Poovorawan, Y. (2020). Detection of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 and influenza viruses based on CRISPR-Cas12a. Exp. Biol. Med., 10.","DOI":"10.1177\/1535370220963793"},{"key":"ref_54","first-page":"277","article-title":"Massively multiplexed nucleic acid detection with Cas13","volume":"582","author":"Ackerman","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3992","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.01639-14","article-title":"Evaluation of the Alere i Influenza A&B Nucleic Acid Amplification Test by Use of Respiratory Specimens Collected in Viral Transport Medium","volume":"52","author":"Bell","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1894","DOI":"10.1021\/acssensors.8b00420","article-title":"Detecting Biothreat Agents: From Current Diagnostics to Developing Sensor Technologies","volume":"3","author":"Walper","year":"2018","journal-title":"ACS Sens."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Angione, S.L., Inde, Z., Beck, C.M., Artenstein, A.W., Opal, S.M., and Tripathi, A. (2013). Microdroplet Sandwich Real-Time RT-PCR for Detection of Pandemic and Seasonal Influenza Subtypes. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0073497"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"627","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmoldx.2014.06.008","article-title":"Seven Novel Probe Systems for Real-Time PCR Provide Absolute Single-Base Discrimination, Higher Signaling, and Generic Components","volume":"16","author":"Murray","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Mol. Diagn."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1574-6941.2008.00629.x","article-title":"Advantages and limitations of quantitative PCR (Q-PCR)-based approaches in microbial ecology","volume":"67","author":"Smith","year":"2009","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"Chaoyong, J., and Yang, W.T. (2013). Design, Synthesis, Purification and Characterization of Molecular Beacons, Springer."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1677\/jme.0.0290023","article-title":"Quantification of mRNA using real-time reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR): Trends and problems","volume":"29","author":"Bustin","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Mol. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.3382\/japr\/pfw014","article-title":"A modified strategy of multiplex RT-PCR for simultaneous detection of H5, H7, and H9 subtypes of avian influenza virus based on common forward oligo","volume":"25","author":"Tahir","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Appl. Poult. Res."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Spurgeon, S.L., Jones, R.C., and Ramakrishnan, R. (2008). High Throughput Gene Expression Measurement with Real Time PCR in a Microfluidic Dynamic Array. PLoS ONE, 3.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0001662"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12491","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.chemrev.5b00428","article-title":"Isothermal Amplification of Nucleic Acids","volume":"115","author":"Zhao","year":"2015","journal-title":"Chem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2008.78.93","article-title":"Experimental infection of Aedes sollicitans and Aedes taeniorhynchus with two chimeric Sindbis\/Eastern equine encephalitis virus vaccine candidates","volume":"78","author":"Arrigo","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1007\/s11033-014-3758-5","article-title":"A review on emerging diagnostic assay for viral detection: The case of avian influenza virus","volume":"42","author":"Shojaei","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1235","DOI":"10.3390\/v4081235","article-title":"Updated Values for Molecular Diagnosis for Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Virus","volume":"4","author":"Sakurai","year":"2012","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.20221","article-title":"Development and evaluation of a real-time nucleic acid sequence based amplification assay for rapid detection of influenza A","volume":"74","author":"Moore","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Med Virol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"816","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1225829","article-title":"A Programmable Dual-RNA-Guided DNA Endonuclease in Adaptive Bacterial Immunity","volume":"337","author":"Jinek","year":"2012","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"436","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aar6245","article-title":"CRISPR-Cas12a target binding unleashes indiscriminate single-stranded DNase activity","volume":"360","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"438","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aam9321","article-title":"Nucleic acid detection with CRISPR-Cas13a\/C2c2","volume":"356","author":"Gootenberg","year":"2017","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"870","DOI":"10.1038\/s41587-020-0513-4","article-title":"CRISPR\u2013Cas12-based detection of SARS-CoV-2","volume":"38","author":"Broughton","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2986","DOI":"10.1038\/s41596-019-0210-2","article-title":"SHERLOCK: Nucleic acid detection with CRISPR nucleases","volume":"14","author":"Kellner","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Protoc."},{"key":"ref_74","unstructured":"Ducheyne, P., Grainger, D.W., Healy, K.E., Hutmacher, D.W., and Kirkpack, C.J. (2017). 3.30 Biosensors based on sol\u2013gel derived materials In Comprehensive Biomaterials, Elsevier. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinf.2018.04.007","article-title":"Oligonucleotide aptamers: Promising and powerful diagnostic and therapeutic tools for infectious diseases","volume":"77","author":"Pan","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Infect."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"458","DOI":"10.1203\/PDR.0b013e3181d361c3","article-title":"DNA Diagnostics: Nanotechnology-Enhanced Electrochemical Detection of Nucleic Acids","volume":"67","author":"Wei","year":"2010","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"596","DOI":"10.1038\/nnano.2007.313","article-title":"Taking charge of biomolecules","volume":"2","author":"Kinsella","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nat. Nanotechnol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1007\/s12257-018-0220-x","article-title":"Biosensor for Rapid and Sensitive Detection of Influenza Virus","volume":"23","author":"Yang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Bioprocess Eng."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"483","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2016.02.020","article-title":"An ultrasensitive alloyed near-infrared quinternary quantum dot-molecular beacon nanodiagnostic bioprobe for influenza virus RNA","volume":"80","author":"Adegoke","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1002","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.analchem.6b04362","article-title":"Silver Nanoclusters Beacon as Stimuli-Responsive Versatile Platform for Multiplex DNAs Detection and Aptamer\u2013Substrate Complexes Sensing","volume":"89","author":"Liu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5410","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.analchem.5b00810","article-title":"Recognition of Dual Targets by a Molecular Beacon-Based Sensor: Subtyping of Influenza A Virus","volume":"87","author":"Lee","year":"2015","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4722","DOI":"10.1039\/c3an00830d","article-title":"Protein-binding aptamer assisted signal amplification for the detection of influenza A (H1N1) DNA sequences based on quantum dot fluorescence polarization analysis","volume":"138","author":"Zhang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Analyst"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aca.2012.02.030","article-title":"Detection of influenza A virus based on fluorescence resonance energy transfer from quantum dots to carbon nanotubes","volume":"723","author":"Tian","year":"2012","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"886","DOI":"10.1021\/ac902039n","article-title":"Specific Nucleic Acid Detection Using Photophysical Properties of Quantum Dot Probes","volume":"82","author":"Lim","year":"2010","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12506","DOI":"10.3390\/s120912506","article-title":"A SPR Aptasensor for Detection of Avian Influenza Virus H5N1","volume":"12","author":"Bai","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aca.2019.09.060","article-title":"Label-free peptide nucleic acid biosensor for visual detection of multiple strains of influenza A virus suitable for field applications","volume":"1093","author":"Kumar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physe.2017.05.019","article-title":"Detection of influenza A virus using carbon nanotubes field effect transistor based DNA sensor","volume":"93","author":"Tran","year":"2017","journal-title":"Phys. E Low Dimens. Syst. Nanostruct."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1765","DOI":"10.1039\/c000532k","article-title":"Impedimetric detection of influenza A (H1N1) DNA sequence using carbon nanotubes platform and gold nanoparticles amplification","volume":"135","author":"Bonanni","year":"2010","journal-title":"Analyst"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jim.2009.08.002","article-title":"DNA sensor development based on multi-wall carbon nanotubes for label-free influenza virus (type A) detection","volume":"350","author":"Tam","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Immunol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2017.11.052","article-title":"A multi-functional gold\/iron-oxide nanoparticle-CNT hybrid nanomaterial as virus DNA sensing platform","volume":"102","author":"Lee","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2017.07.052","article-title":"Neutralized chimeric DNA probe for detection of single nucleotide polymorphism on surface plasmon resonance biosensor","volume":"99","author":"Huang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4566","DOI":"10.1039\/C5AN00679A","article-title":"A non-PCR SPR platform using RNase H to detect MicroRNA 29a-3p from throat swabs of human subjects with influenza A virus H1N1 infection","volume":"140","author":"Loo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Analyst"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10167","DOI":"10.1021\/ac401547h","article-title":"Single Electrode Genosensor for Simultaneous Determination of Sequences Encoding Hemagglutinin and Neuraminidase of Avian Influenza Virus Type H5N1","volume":"85","author":"Grabowska","year":"2013","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8834","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.5b01438","article-title":"Electrochemical DNA Biosensor Based on a Tetrahedral Nanostructure Probe for the Detection of Avian Influenza A (H7N9) Virus","volume":"7","author":"Dong","year":"2015","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"927","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2017.05.147","article-title":"A microfluidic flow-through chip integrated with reduced graphene oxide transistor for influenza virus gene detection","volume":"251","author":"Chan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2014.10.069","article-title":"New redox-active layer create via epoxy\u2013amine reaction\u2014The base of genosensor for the detection of specific DNA and RNA sequences of avian influenza virus H5N1","volume":"65","author":"Malecka","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, J., Liu, J., Vemula, S.V., Lin, C., Tan, J., Ragupathy, V., Wang, X., Mbondji-Wonje, C., Ye, Z., and Landry, M.L. (2016). Sensitive Detection and Simultaneous Discrimination of Influenza A and B Viruses in Nasopharyngeal Swabs in a Single Assay Using Next-Generation Sequencing-Based Diagnostics. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0163175"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00963-19","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.00963-19","article-title":"Metagenomic Nanopore Sequencing of Influenza Virus Direct from Clinical Respiratory Samples","volume":"58","author":"Lewandowski","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dzi\u0105bowska, K., Czaczyk, E., and Nidzworski, D. (2018). Detection Methods of Human and Animal Influenza Virus\u2014Current Trends. Biosensors, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/bios8040094"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhuo, Z., Yu, Y., Wang, M., Li, J., Zhang, Z., Liu, J., Wu, X., Lu, A., Zhang, G., and Zhang, B. (2017). Recent Advances in SELEX Technology and Aptamer Applications in Biomedicine. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms18102142"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-37483-w","article-title":"A method to identify respiratory virus infections in clinical samples using next-generation sequencing","volume":"9","author":"Kustin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"869","DOI":"10.1101\/gr.226316.117","article-title":"Comprehensive viral enrichment enables sensitive respiratory virus genomic identification and analysis by next generation sequencing","volume":"28","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"Genome Res."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2238","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.02495-14","article-title":"Evaluation of Unbiased Next-Generation Sequencing of RNA (RNA-seq) as a Diagnostic Method in Influenza Virus-Positive Respiratory Samples","volume":"53","author":"Fischer","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3722","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.01641-14","article-title":"Exploring the Potential of Next-Generation Sequencing in Detection of Respiratory Viruses","volume":"52","author":"Prachayangprecha","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1000","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.03060-15","article-title":"Unbiased Detection of Respiratory Viruses by Use of RNA Sequencing-Based Metagenomics: A Systematic Comparison to a Commercial PCR Panel","volume":"54","author":"Graf","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_106","unstructured":"United States Food and Drug Administration (2020, January 12). CLIA Categorizations, Available online: https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/medical-devices\/ivd-regulatory-assistance\/clia-categorizations."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"328","DOI":"10.1136\/jclinpath-2019-206242","article-title":"Molecular point-of-care testing for influenza A\/B and respiratory syncytial virus: Comparison of workflow parameters for the ID Now and cobas Liat systems","volume":"73","author":"Young","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clin. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00367-18","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.00367-18","article-title":"Detection of Influenza A and B Viruses and Respiratory Syncytial Virus by Use of Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments of 1988 (CLIA)-Waived Point-of-Care Assays: A Paradigm Shift to Molecular Tests","volume":"56","author":"Azar","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1611","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.01611-19","article-title":"Comparison of the ID Now Influenza A & B 2, Cobas Influenza A\/B, and Xpert Xpress Flu Point-of-Care Nucleic Acid Amplification Tests for Influenza A\/B Virus Detection in Children","volume":"58","author":"Kanwar","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diagmicrobio.2017.11.010","article-title":"Evaluation of the molecular Xpert Xpress Flu\/RSV assay vs. Alere i Influenza A & B assay for rapid detection of influenza viruses","volume":"90","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01691-17","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.01691-17","article-title":"Parallel Validation of Three Molecular Devices for Simultaneous Detection and Identification of Influenza A and B and Respiratory Syncytial Viruses","volume":"56","author":"Ling","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00930-18","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.00930-18","article-title":"Comparison of Six Sample-to-Answer Influenza A\/B and Respiratory Syncytial Virus Nucleic Acid Amplification Assays Using Respiratory Specimens from Children","volume":"56","author":"Banerjee","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."}],"container-title":["Biosensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6374\/11\/2\/47\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:23:11Z","timestamp":1760160191000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6374\/11\/2\/47"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,12]]},"references-count":112,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2]]}},"alternative-id":["bios11020047"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/bios11020047","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-6374"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-6374","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,12]]}}}