{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,17]],"date-time":"2026-05-17T03:35:33Z","timestamp":1778988933653,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":69,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,14]],"date-time":"2021-07-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1626220800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100006041","name":"Innovate UK","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["Partnership Number: 9971"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Partnership Number: 9971"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100006041","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000266","name":"Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["EP\/M027333\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["EP\/M027333\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000266","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000266","name":"Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["EP\/P006485\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["EP\/P006485\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000266","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000837","name":"University of Nottingham","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["Nottingham Research Fellowship"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Nottingham Research Fellowship"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000837","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biosensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Enteroviruses are ubiquitous mammalian pathogens that can produce mild to life-threatening disease. We developed a multimodal, rapid, accurate and economical point-of-care biosensor that can detect nucleic acid sequences conserved amongst 96% of all known enteroviruses. The biosensor harnesses the physicochemical properties of gold nanoparticles and oligonucleotides to provide colourimetric, spectroscopic and lateral flow-based identification of an exclusive enteroviral nucleic acid sequence (23 bases), which was identified through in silico screening. Oligonucleotides were designed to demonstrate specific complementarity towards the target enteroviral nucleic acid to produce aggregated gold\u2013oligonucleotide nanoconstructs. The conserved target enteroviral nucleic acid sequence (\u22651 \u00d7 10\u22127 M, \u22651.4 \u00d7 10\u221214 g\/mL) initiates gold\u2013oligonucleotide nanoconstruct disaggregation and a signal transduction mechanism, producing a colourimetric and spectroscopic blueshift (544 nm (purple) &gt; 524 nm (red)). Furthermore, lateral-flow assays that utilise gold\u2013oligonucleotide nanoconstructs were unaffected by contaminating human genomic DNA, demonstrated rapid detection of conserved target enteroviral nucleic acid sequence (&lt;60 s), and could be interpreted with a bespoke software and hardware electronic interface. We anticipate that our methodology will translate in silico screening of nucleic acid databases to a tangible enteroviral desktop detector, which could be readily translated to related organisms. This will pave the way forward in the clinical evaluation of disease and complement existing strategies to overcome antimicrobial resistance.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bios11070238","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,14]],"date-time":"2021-07-14T10:13:42Z","timestamp":1626257622000},"page":"238","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Gold\u2013Oligonucleotide Nanoconstructs Engineered to Detect Conserved Enteroviral Nucleic Acid Sequences"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2067-4630","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Veeren M.","family":"Chauhan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Pharmacy, Boots Science Building, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK"},{"name":"TBG Solutions Ltd. 3A Midland Court, Barlborough Links, Barlborough, Chesterfield, Derbyshire S43 4UL, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mohamed M.","family":"Elsutohy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Schulich School of Engineering, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4V8, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1710-1049","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"C. Patrick","family":"McClure","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Queen\u2019s Medical Centre, School of Life Sciences, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2UH, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7268-3168","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"William L.","family":"Irving","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Queen\u2019s Medical Centre, School of Life Sciences, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2UH, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Neil","family":"Roddis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"TBG Solutions Ltd. 3A Midland Court, Barlborough Links, Barlborough, Chesterfield, Derbyshire S43 4UL, UK"},{"name":"Jodrell Bank Observatory, University of Manchester, Macclesfield, Cheshire SK11 9DL, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jonathan W.","family":"Aylott","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Pharmacy, Boots Science Building, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"368","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-018-0005-4","article-title":"The life cycle of non-polio enteroviruses and how to target it","volume":"16","author":"Baggen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1723","DOI":"10.1099\/vir.0.000131","article-title":"A novel dromedary camel enterovirus in the family Picornaviridae from dromedaries in the Middle East","volume":"96","author":"Woo","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1038\/srep34381","article-title":"Distribution and characteristics of rodent picornaviruses in China","volume":"6","author":"Du","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Haaheim, L.R., Pattison, J.R., and Whitley, R.J. (2003). A Practical Guide to Clinical Virology, Wiley.","DOI":"10.1002\/0470857285"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"718","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(05)70270-X","article-title":"Understanding the symptoms of the common cold and influenza","volume":"5","author":"Eccles","year":"2005","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-17749-5","article-title":"Comparative epidemiology of poliovirus transmission","volume":"7","author":"Noori","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1177","DOI":"10.1086\/656596","article-title":"The Use of Antimicrobial Agents after Diagnosis of Viral Respiratory Tract Infections in Hospitalized Adults: Antibiotics or Anxiolytics?","volume":"31","author":"Shiley","year":"2010","journal-title":"Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1100","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(17)30481-4","article-title":"Measuring progress on preventing pneumonia deaths: Are we there yet?","volume":"17","author":"Whitney","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e006245","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2014-006245","article-title":"Continued high rates of antibiotic prescribing to adults with respiratory tract infection: Survey of 568 UK general practices","volume":"4","author":"Gulliford","year":"2014","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2014). Antimicrobial Resistance: Global Report on Surveillance, World Health Organization."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chauhan, V.M., Scurr, D.J., Christie, T., Telford, G., Aylott, J.W., and Pritchard, D.I. (2017). The physicochemical fingerprint of Necator americanus. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0005971"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addr.2009.11.016","article-title":"Nano\/Microfluidics for diagnosis of infectious diseases in developing countries","volume":"62","author":"Lee","year":"2010","journal-title":"Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sbi.2011.01.008","article-title":"Near-atomic resolution reconstructions of icosahedral viruses from electron cryo-microscopy","volume":"21","author":"Grigorieff","year":"2011","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Struct. Biol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1038\/lsa.2013.60","article-title":"Label-free super-resolution imaging of adenoviruses by submerged microsphere optical nanoscopy","volume":"2","author":"Li","year":"2013","journal-title":"Light-Sci. Appl."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"540","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.02620-12","article-title":"Comparison of Droplet Digital PCR to Real-Time PCR for Quantitative Detection of Cytomegalovirus","volume":"51","author":"Hayden","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virusres.2013.12.007","article-title":"Methods in virus diagnostics: From ELISA to next generation sequencing","volume":"186","author":"Boonham","year":"2014","journal-title":"Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"(2015, August 06). General Practice in the UK: British Medical Association. Available online: http:\/\/bma.org.uk\/-\/media\/files\/pdfs\/news%20views%20analysis\/press%20briefings\/pressbriefinggeneralpracticeintheuk_july2014_v2.pdf."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.1099\/0022-1317-34-3-475","article-title":"Characteristics of the microplate method of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for the detection of plant viruses","volume":"34","author":"Clark","year":"1977","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100924","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eclinm.2021.100924","article-title":"COVID-19: Rapid antigen detection for SARS-CoV-2 by lateral flow assay: A national systematic evaluation of sensitivity and specificity for mass-testing","volume":"36","author":"Peto","year":"2021","journal-title":"EClinicalMedicine"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hang, V.T., Nguyet, N.M., Trung, D.T., Tricou, V., Yoksan, S., Dung, N.M., Van Ngoc, T., Hien, T.T., Farrar, J., and Wills, B. (2009). Diagnostic Accuracy of NS1 ELISA and Lateral Flow Rapid Tests for Dengue Sensitivity, Specificity and Relationship to Viraemia and Antibody Responses. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 3.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0000360"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chatziharalambous, D., Lygirou, V., Latosinska, A., Stravodimos, K., Vlahou, A., Jankowski, V., and Zoidakis, J. (2016). Analytical Performance of ELISA Assays in Urine: One More Bottleneck towards Biomarker Validation and Clinical Implementation. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0149471"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1039\/C2LC40690J","article-title":"Development of automated paper-based devices for sequential multistep sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays using inkjet printing","volume":"13","author":"Apilux","year":"2013","journal-title":"Lab A Chip"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104413","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcv.2020.104413","article-title":"Evaluation of two automated and three rapid lateral flow immunoassays for the detection of anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies","volume":"128","author":"Montesinos","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clin. Virol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"392","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2014.09.026","article-title":"Aptamers as a replacement for antibodies in enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay","volume":"64","author":"Toh","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2383","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-015-9212-2","article-title":"Oligonucleotide-based biosensors for in vitro diagnostics and environmental hazard detection","volume":"408","author":"Jung","year":"2016","journal-title":"Anal. Bioanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2017.11.028","article-title":"Nucleic acid aptamer-based methods for diagnosis of Infections","volume":"102","author":"Park","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gonzalez, V.M., Martin, M.E., Fernandez, G., and Garcia-Sacristan, A. (2016). Use of Aptamers as Diagnostics Tools and Antiviral Agents for Human Viruses. Pharmaceuticals, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/ph9040078"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1948","DOI":"10.1021\/cr030183i","article-title":"Functional Nucleic Acid Sensors","volume":"109","author":"Liu","year":"2009","journal-title":"Chem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"737","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2010.11.005","article-title":"Enzyme-Linked Aptamer Assays (ELAAs), based on a competition format for a rapid and sensitive detection of Ochratoxin A in wine","volume":"22","author":"Barthelmebs","year":"2011","journal-title":"Food Control"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"690","DOI":"10.1039\/C3AY41576G","article-title":"Selection, identification and application of a DNA aptamer against Staphylococcus aureus enterotoxin A","volume":"6","author":"Huang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Anal. Methods"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2006.07.069","article-title":"Homogeneous DNA sensing using enzyme-inhibiting DNA aptamers","volume":"348","author":"Yoshida","year":"2006","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2018.08.074","article-title":"Lateral flow aptamer assay integrated smartphone-based portable device for simultaneous detection of multiple targets using upconversion nanoparticles","volume":"276","author":"Jin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"743","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2007.04.007","article-title":"Aptamer from whole-bacterium SELEX as new therapeutic reagent against virulent Mycobacterium tuberculosis","volume":"357","author":"Chen","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"592","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addr.2010.03.003","article-title":"Molecular diagnostic and drug delivery agents based on aptamer-nanomaterial conjugates","volume":"62","author":"Lee","year":"2010","journal-title":"Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4120","DOI":"10.1021\/ac070055k","article-title":"Quantum dot encoding of aptamer-linked nanostructures for one-pot simultaneous detection of multiple analytes","volume":"79","author":"Liu","year":"2007","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2228","DOI":"10.1021\/ja060005h","article-title":"Quantum-dot\/aptamer-based ultrasensitive multi-analyte electrochemical biosensor","volume":"128","author":"Hansen","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"412","DOI":"10.1021\/bc7003928","article-title":"MRI detection of thrombin with aptamer functionalized superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles","volume":"19","author":"Yigit","year":"2008","journal-title":"Bioconjugate Chem."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Giamberardino, A., Labib, M., Hassan, E.M., Tetro, J.A., Springthorpe, S., Sattar, S.A., Berezovski, M.V., and DeRosa, M.C. (2013). Ultrasensitive Norovirus Detection Using DNA Aptasensor Technology. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0079087"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10575","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.chemrev.5b00100","article-title":"Gold Nanoparticles for In Vitro Diagnostics","volume":"115","author":"Zhou","year":"2015","journal-title":"Chem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S1872-2040(17)61061-2","article-title":"Progress of Visual Biosensor Based on Gold Nanoparticles","volume":"46","author":"Ma","year":"2018","journal-title":"Chin. J. Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7644","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.analchem.5b00875","article-title":"Colorimetric Detection of Small Molecules in Complex Matrixes via Target-Mediated Growth of Aptamer-Functionalized Gold Nanoparticles","volume":"87","author":"Soh","year":"2015","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jchromb.2016.04.016","article-title":"An aptamer based lateral flow strip for on-site rapid detection of ochratoxin A in Astragalus membranaceus","volume":"1022","author":"Zhou","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Chromatogr. B Anal. Technol. Biomed. Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7955","DOI":"10.1002\/anie.200603106","article-title":"A simple and sensitive \u201cdipstick\u201d test in serum based on lateral flow separation of aptamer-linked nanostructures","volume":"45","author":"Liu","year":"2006","journal-title":"Angew. Chem. Int. Ed."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11768","DOI":"10.1021\/ja046970u","article-title":"Aptamer-functionalized Au nanoparticles for the amplified optical detection of thrombin","volume":"126","author":"Pavlov","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3943","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.200602256","article-title":"A gold nanoparticle-based aptamer target binding readout for ATP assay","volume":"19","author":"Wang","year":"2007","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5735","DOI":"10.1021\/ac050957q","article-title":"Aptamer-modified gold nanoparticles for colorimetric determination of platelet-derived growth factors and their receptors","volume":"77","author":"Huang","year":"2005","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"751","DOI":"10.3390\/v7020751","article-title":"Aptamers in Diagnostics and Treatment of Viral Infections","volume":"7","author":"Wandtke","year":"2015","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"O\u2019Neil, J. (2015, August 06). Antimicrobial Resistance: Tackling a Crisis for the Health and Wealth of Nations. Available online: http:\/\/amr-review.org\/."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1038\/nprot.2006.38","article-title":"Preparation of aptamer-linked gold nanoparticle purple aggregates for colorimetric sensing of analytes","volume":"1","author":"Liu","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nat. Protoc."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3710","DOI":"10.1038\/emboj.2010.231","article-title":"Polypyrimidine tract-binding protein stimulates the poliovirus IRES by modulating eIF4G binding","volume":"29","author":"Kafasla","year":"2010","journal-title":"EMBO J."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10617","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.76.21.10617-10626.2002","article-title":"Poliovirus Internal Ribosome Entry Segment Structure Alterations That Specifically Affect Function in Neuronal Cells: Molecular Genetic Analysis","volume":"76","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10746","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.7b03288","article-title":"Resistance of Echovirus 11 to ClO2 Is Associated with Enhanced Host Receptor Use, Altered Entry Routes, and High Fitness","volume":"51","author":"Zhong","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.00961-19","article-title":"Differences in Viral Disinfection Mechanisms as Revealed by Quantitative Transfection of Echovirus 11 Genomes","volume":"85","author":"Torrey","year":"2019","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"346","DOI":"10.1038\/nature04569","article-title":"The finished DNA sequence of human chromosome 12","volume":"440","author":"Scherer","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1790","DOI":"10.1021\/bc300687z","article-title":"Thermal Stability of DNA Functionalized Gold Nanoparticles","volume":"24","author":"Li","year":"2013","journal-title":"Bioconjugate Chem."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8410","DOI":"10.1021\/jp9917648","article-title":"Spectral properties and relaxation dynamics of surface plasmon electronic oscillations in gold and silver nanodots and nanorods","volume":"103","author":"Link","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem. B"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16718","DOI":"10.1021\/ja045276b","article-title":"Hydrogen bonds of RNA are stronger than those of DNA, but NMR monitors only presence of methyl substituent in uracil\/thymine","volume":"126","author":"Swart","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"653","DOI":"10.1126\/science.101.2635.653","article-title":"Human vision and the spectrum","volume":"101","author":"Wald","year":"1945","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/0003-2697(88)90120-0","article-title":"The Avidin Biotin Complex in Bioanalytical Applications","volume":"171","author":"Wilchek","year":"1988","journal-title":"Anal. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1985","DOI":"10.7150\/thno.23856","article-title":"Applications of gold nanoparticles in virus detection","volume":"8","author":"Draz","year":"2018","journal-title":"Theranostics"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E322","DOI":"10.1111\/1469-0691.12193","article-title":"Virus shedding after human rhinovirus infection in children, adults and patients with hypogammaglobulinaemia","volume":"19","author":"Peltola","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"292","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diagmicrobio.2015.05.001","article-title":"Comparison of asymptomatic and symptomatic rhinovirus infections in university students: Incidence, species diversity, and viral load","volume":"82","author":"Granados","year":"2015","journal-title":"Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcv.2018.01.008","article-title":"Recommendations for enterovirus diagnostics and characterisation within and beyond Europe","volume":"101","author":"Harvala","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Clin. Virol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2011.12.005","article-title":"Kinetics of virus production from single cells","volume":"424","author":"Timm","year":"2012","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.1292\/jvms.14-0227","article-title":"Establishing conditions for the storage and elution of rabies virus RNA using FTA (R) cards","volume":"77","author":"Sakai","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Vet. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1007\/s00253-020-11061-5","article-title":"Detection technologies and recent developments in the diagnosis of COVID-19 infection","volume":"105","author":"Rai","year":"2021","journal-title":"Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5204","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ygeno.2020.09.028","article-title":"Mutations on COVID-19 diagnostic targets","volume":"112","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Genomics"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-03065-y","article-title":"Genetic mechanisms of critical illness in Covid-19","volume":"591","author":"Clohisey","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1813","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2007764","article-title":"Remdesivir for the treatment of Covid-19","volume":"383","author":"Beigel","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."}],"container-title":["Biosensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6374\/11\/7\/238\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T06:30:23Z","timestamp":1760164223000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6374\/11\/7\/238"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,14]]},"references-count":69,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,7]]}},"alternative-id":["bios11070238"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/bios11070238","relation":{"has-preprint":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.26434\/chemrxiv.8312324.v1","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["2079-6374"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-6374","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,14]]}}}