{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,16]],"date-time":"2026-04-16T16:27:08Z","timestamp":1776356828699,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":73,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,5]],"date-time":"2023-10-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1696464000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Marie Sk\u0142odowska-Curie MSCA-ITN \u201cImplantSens\u201d","award":["813006"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["813006"]}]},{"name":"Knowledge Foundation","award":["813006"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["813006"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biosensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The prevailing form of bacterial infection is within the urinary tract, encompassing a wide array of bacteria that harness the urinary metabolome for their growth. Through their metabolic actions, the chemical composition of the growth medium undergoes modifications as the bacteria metabolize urine compounds, leading to the subsequent release of metabolites. These changes can indirectly indicate the existence and proliferation of bacterial organisms. Here, we investigate the use of an electronic tongue, a powerful analytical instrument based on a combination of non-selective chemical sensors with a partial specificity for data gathering combined with principal component analysis, to distinguish between infected and non-infected artificial urine samples. Three prevalent bacteria found in urinary tract infections were investigated, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Enterococcus faecalis. Furthermore, the electronic tongue analysis was supplemented with 1H NMR spectroscopy and flow cytometry. Bacteria-specific changes in compound consumption allowed for a qualitative differentiation between artificial urine medium and bacterial growth.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bios13100916","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,6]],"date-time":"2023-10-06T01:07:13Z","timestamp":1696554433000},"page":"916","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Bacteria-Infected Artificial Urine Characterization Based on a Combined Approach Using an Electronic Tongue Complemented with 1H-NMR and Flow Cytometry"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Carolin","family":"Psotta","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomedical Science, Faculty of Health and Society, and Biofilms Research Center, Malm\u00f6 University, 205 06 Malm\u00f6, Sweden"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5654-4339","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emelie J.","family":"Nilsson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomedical Science, Faculty of Health and Society, and Biofilms Research Center, Malm\u00f6 University, 205 06 Malm\u00f6, Sweden"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9098-0097","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Thomas","family":"Sj\u00f6berg","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomedical Science, Faculty of Health and Society, and Biofilms Research Center, Malm\u00f6 University, 205 06 Malm\u00f6, Sweden"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Magnus","family":"Falk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomedical Science, Faculty of Health and Society, and Biofilms Research Center, Malm\u00f6 University, 205 06 Malm\u00f6, Sweden"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Grabe, M., Bjerklund-Johansen, T.E., \u00c7ek, M., Naber, K.G., Pickard, R.S., Bartoletti, R., Tenke, P., Wagenlehner, F., and Wullt, B. (2015). Guidelines on Urological Infections, European Association of Urology."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro3432","article-title":"Urinary tract infections: Epidemiology, mechanisms of infection and treatment options","volume":"13","author":"Walker","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"1150","article-title":"Laboratory Diagnosis of Urinary Tract Infections in Adult Patients","volume":"38","author":"Wilson","year":"2004","journal-title":"Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1128\/microbiolspec.MBP-0016-2015","article-title":"Metabolism and Fitness of Urinary Tract Pathogens","volume":"3","author":"Alteri","year":"2015","journal-title":"Microbiol. Spectr."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2016.00014","article-title":"The Basics of Bacteriuria: Strategies of Microbes for Persistence in Urine","volume":"6","author":"Ipe","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"946","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molmed.2016.09.003","article-title":"Urinary Tract Infection: Pathogenesis and Outlook","volume":"22","author":"McLellan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Trends Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eursup.2016.04.002","article-title":"Improved Classification of Urinary Tract Infection: Future Considerations","volume":"15","author":"Smelov","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur. Urol. Suppl."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lussu, M., Camboni, T., Piras, C., Serra, C., Del Carratore, F., Griffin, J., Atzori, L., and Manzin, A. (2017). (1)H NMR spectroscopy-based metabolomics analysis for the diagnosis of symptomatic E. coli-associated urinary tract infection (UTI). BMC Microbiol., 17.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12866-017-1108-1"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"893","DOI":"10.1515\/CCLM.2001.146","article-title":"Identifying Bacteria in Human Urine: Current Practice and the Potential for Rapid, Near-Patient Diagnosis by Sensing Volatile Organic Compounds","volume":"39","author":"Guernion","year":"2001","journal-title":"Clin. Chem. Lab. Med."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6461","DOI":"10.1039\/C9AN01747J","article-title":"Electrochemical sensors for rapid diagnosis of pathogens in real time","volume":"144","author":"Simoska","year":"2019","journal-title":"Analyst"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"037518","DOI":"10.1149\/2.0182003JES","article-title":"Review\u2014Point-of-Care Urinalysis with Emerging Sensing and Imaging Technologies","volume":"167","author":"Mahoney","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Electrochem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7116","DOI":"10.1039\/C5AN01330E","article-title":"Fundamentals, achievements and challenges in the electrochemical sensing of pathogens","volume":"140","author":"Monzo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Analyst"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"330","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tips.2011.03.001","article-title":"Biosensor diagnosis of urinary tract infections: A path to better treatment?","volume":"32","author":"Mach","year":"2011","journal-title":"Trends Pharmacol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"631","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00120-13","article-title":"Biosensors for Whole-Cell Bacterial Detection","volume":"27","author":"Ahmed","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trac.2016.04.004","article-title":"Critical overview on the application of sensors and biosensors for clinical analysis","volume":"85","author":"Justino","year":"2016","journal-title":"Trends Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1128\/jcm.7.3.273-278.1978","article-title":"Impedimetric screening for bacteriuria","volume":"7","author":"Cady","year":"1978","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cca.2014.05.014","article-title":"NMR-based metabolomic urinalysis: A rapid screening test for urinary tract infection","volume":"436","author":"Lam","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alteri, C.J., Smith, S.N., and Mobley, H.L. (2009). Fitness of Escherichia coli during urinary tract infection requires gluconeogenesis and the TCA cycle. PLoS Pathog., 5.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1000448"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00101","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00101-19","article-title":"Rapid Growth and Metabolism of Uropathogenic Escherichia coli in Relation to Urine Composition","volume":"33","author":"Reitzer","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mann, R., Mediati, D.G., Duggin, I.G., Harry, E.J., and Bottomley, A.L. (2017). Metabolic Adaptations of Uropathogenic E. coli in the Urinary Tract. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2017.00241"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"502","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00849261","article-title":"Renal glucosuria","volume":"1","author":"Brodehl","year":"1987","journal-title":"Pediatr. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5760","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.00618-08","article-title":"Uropathogenic Escherichia coli CFT073 Is Adapted to Acetatogenic Growth but Does Not Require Acetate during Murine Urinary Tract Infection","volume":"76","author":"Anfora","year":"2008","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1844","DOI":"10.1021\/pr2010692","article-title":"Broad Identification of Bacterial Type in Urinary Tract Infection Using 1H NMR Spectroscopy","volume":"11","author":"Gupta","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Proteome Res."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7961","DOI":"10.1039\/C5AY01678A","article-title":"Biomarkers of urinary tract infections: State of the art, and promising applications for rapid strip-based chemical sensors","volume":"7","author":"Karlsen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Anal. Methods"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tibtech.2017.08.001","article-title":"Microbial Identification Using Electrochemical Detection of Metabolites","volume":"35","author":"Goluch","year":"2017","journal-title":"Trends Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"839","DOI":"10.1002\/1521-4109(200206)14:12<839::AID-ELAN839>3.0.CO;2-Y","article-title":"Investigation of Electrode Materials as Sensors in a Voltammetric Electronic Tongue","volume":"14","author":"Holmin","year":"2002","journal-title":"Electroanalysis"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wasilewski, T., Kamysz, W., and G\u0119bicki, J. (2020). Bioelectronic tongue: Current status and perspectives. Biosens. Bioelectron., 150.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2019.111923"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1539","DOI":"10.1002\/elan.201000013","article-title":"Electronic Tongues Employing Electrochemical Sensors","volume":"22","year":"2010","journal-title":"Electroanalysis"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1965","DOI":"10.1351\/pac200577111965","article-title":"Nonspecific sensor arrays (\u201celectronic tongue\u201d) for chemical analysis of liquids (IUPAC Technical Report)","volume":"77","author":"Vlasov","year":"2005","journal-title":"Pure Appl. Chem."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1007\/s00604-007-0929-2","article-title":"Voltammetric electronic tongues\u2014Basic principles and applications","volume":"163","author":"Winquist","year":"2008","journal-title":"Microchim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"917","DOI":"10.1080\/00032710801934809","article-title":"A Miniaturized Voltammetric Electronic Tongue","volume":"41","author":"Winquist","year":"2008","journal-title":"Anal. Lett."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"986025","article-title":"Sensor Arrays and Electronic Tongue Systems","volume":"2012","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Electrochem."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/0169-7439(87)80084-9","article-title":"Principal Component Analysis","volume":"2","author":"Wold","year":"1987","journal-title":"Chemom. Intell. Lab. Syst."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1016\/S0003-2670(97)00498-4","article-title":"An electronic tongue based on voltammetry","volume":"357","author":"Winquist","year":"1997","journal-title":"Anal. Chem. Acta"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Falk, M., Psotta, C., Cirovic, S., Ohlsson, L., and Shleev, S. (2023). Electronic Tongue for Direct Assessment of SARS-CoV-2-Free and Infected Human Saliva-A Feasibility Study. Biosensors, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/bios13070717"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123327","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2022.123327","article-title":"Using machine learning and an electronic tongue for discriminating saliva samples from oral cavity cancer patients and healthy individuals","volume":"243","author":"Braz","year":"2022","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7311","DOI":"10.3390\/s21217311","article-title":"Wearable Electronic Tongue for Non-Invasive Assessment of Human Sweat","volume":"21","author":"Falk","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1007\/s00604-007-0905-x","article-title":"Analysis of dialysate fluids with the use of a potentiometric electronic tongue","volume":"163","author":"Ciosek","year":"2008","journal-title":"Microchim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2171","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2006.10.007","article-title":"Potentiometric bioelectronic tongue for the analysis of urea and alkaline ions in clinical samples","volume":"22","author":"Gutierrez","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"556","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2014.08.030","article-title":"Determination of urine ionic composition with potentiometric multisensor system","volume":"131","author":"Yaroshenko","year":"2015","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zniber, M., Vahdatiyekta, P., and Huynh, T.P. (2022). Analysis of urine using electronic tongue towards non-invasive cancer diagnosis. Biosens. Bioelectron., 219.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2022.114810"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1097","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2008.08.021","article-title":"Clinical analysis of human urine by means of potentiometric electronic tongue","volume":"77","author":"Lvova","year":"2009","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1472-765X.1997.00378.x","article-title":"A simple artificial urine for the growth of urinary pathogens","volume":"24","author":"Brooks","year":"1997","journal-title":"Lett. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Sonns, J.W. (2002). Short Protocols in Molecular Biology, Wiley. [5th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moshaver, B., de Boer, F., van Egmond-Kreileman, H., Kramer, E., Stegeman, C., and Groeneveld, P. (2016). Fast and accurate prediction of positive and negative urine cultures by flow cytometry. BMC Infect. Dis., 16.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-016-1557-4"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"865","DOI":"10.1007\/s00604-014-1181-1","article-title":"Screen-printed electrodes for biosensing: A review (2008\u20132013)","volume":"181","author":"Taleat","year":"2014","journal-title":"Microchim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4442","DOI":"10.20964\/2016.06.71","article-title":"Electrochemical Methods of Real Surface Area Determination of Noble Metal Electrodes\u2014An Overview","volume":"11","author":"Soszko","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Electrochem. Sci."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nanoen.2016.02.044","article-title":"Recent advances in palladium-based electrocatalysts for fuel cell reactions and hydrogen evolution reaction","volume":"29","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nano Energy"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7583","DOI":"10.1016\/j.electacta.2008.05.046","article-title":"Electrochemical behaviour of palladium electrode: Oxidation, electrodissolution and ionic adsorption","volume":"53","author":"Jerkiewicz","year":"2008","journal-title":"Electrochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jelechem.2014.09.021","article-title":"Hydrogen sorption and desorption related properties of Pd-alloys determined by cyclic voltammetry","volume":"734","author":"Uluc","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Electroanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32217","DOI":"10.1038\/srep32217","article-title":"Highly Efficient Electrochemical Hydrogen Evolution Reaction at Insulating Boron Nitride Nanosheet on Inert Gold Substrate","volume":"6","author":"Uosaki","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"985","DOI":"10.1002\/cphc.200500646","article-title":"Hydrogen electrocatalysis","volume":"7","author":"Kibler","year":"2006","journal-title":"Chemphyschem"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1016\/S0925-4005(02)00474-4","article-title":"Recognition of six microbial species with an electronic tongue","volume":"89","author":"Winquist","year":"2003","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1016\/S0003-2670(01)01350-2","article-title":"Electrochemical characterisation of uric acid and ascorbic acid at a platinum electrode","volume":"449","author":"Ernst","year":"2001","journal-title":"Anal. Chem. Acta"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2946","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-59935-y","article-title":"Palladium supported on polypyrrole\/reduced graphene oxide nanoparticles for simultaneous biosensing application of ascorbic acid, dopamine, and uric acid","volume":"10","author":"Demirkan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2447","DOI":"10.1039\/c2ay00017b","article-title":"Electrochemical determination of tryptophan, uric acid and ascorbic acid at a gold nanoparticles modified carbon paste electrode","volume":"4","author":"Ghoreishi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Anal. Methods"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2716","DOI":"10.1016\/j.electacta.2006.09.028","article-title":"Anodic decomposition of citric acid on gold and stainless steel electrodes: An in situ-FTIR-spectroscopic investigation","volume":"52","author":"Trettenhahn","year":"2007","journal-title":"Electrochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_58","first-page":"43","article-title":"The Electrochemistry of Gold: The Redox Behaviour of the Metal in Aqueous Media","volume":"30","author":"Burke","year":"1997","journal-title":"Springer"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Qiao, Y., Li, C.M., Bao, S.J., Lua, Z., and Hong, Y. (2008). Direct electrochemistry and electrocatalytic mechanism of evolved Escherichia coli cells in microbial fuel cells. Chem. Commun., 1290\u20131292.","DOI":"10.1039\/b719955d"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aca.2019.05.007","article-title":"Extracellular electron transfer features of Gram-positive bacteria","volume":"1076","author":"Pankratova","year":"2019","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vebo, H.C., Solheim, M., Snipen, L., Nes, I.F., and Brede, D.A. (2010). Comparative genomic analysis of pathogenic and probiotic Enterococcus faecalis isolates, and their transcriptional responses to growth in human urine. PLoS ONE, 5.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0012489"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Robador, A., LaRowe, D.E., Finkel, S.E., Amend, J.P., and Nealson, K.H. (2018). Changes in Microbial Energy Metabolism Measured by Nanocalorimetry during Growth Phase Transitions. Front. Microbiol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2018.00109"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cordano, C., Traverso, E., Calabr\u00f2, V., Borzone, C., Stara, S., Marchese, R., and Marinelli, L. (2014). Recurring hypermmonemic encephalopathy induced by bacteria usually not producing urease. BMC Res. Notes, 7.","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-0500-7-324"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.01049-12","article-title":"Transcriptional responses of uropathogenic Escherichia coli to increased environmental osmolality caused by salt or urea","volume":"81","author":"Withman","year":"2013","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e03361","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2020.e03361","article-title":"Proteus mirabilis outcompetes Klebsiella pneumoniae in artificial urine medium through secretion of ammonia and other volatile compounds","volume":"6","author":"Juarez","year":"2020","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"660","DOI":"10.1128\/MMBR.00001-06","article-title":"The selective value of bacterial shape","volume":"70","author":"Young","year":"2006","journal-title":"Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11063","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.analchem.9b01580","article-title":"Heinzmann, S.S. Guidelines for the Use of Deuterium Oxide (D2O) in 1H NMR Metabolomics","volume":"91","author":"Haslauer","year":"2019","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bouatra, S., Aziat, F., Mandal, R., Guo, A.C., Wilson, M.R., Knox, C., Bjorndahl, T.C., Krishnamurthy, R., Saleem, F., and Liu, P. (2013). The Human Urine Metabolome. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0073076"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4597","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.biochem.8b00600","article-title":"Extracellular Electron Transfer by the Gram-Positive Bacterium Enterococcus faecalis","volume":"57","author":"Pankratova","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biochemistry"},{"key":"ref_70","unstructured":"Gilmore, M.S., Clewell, D.B., Ike, Y., and Shankar, N. (2014). The Physiology and Metabolism of Enterococci, National Library of Medicine, Bookshelf."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sierra-Padilla, A., Garc\u00eda-Guzm\u00e1n, J.J., L\u00f3pez-Iglesias, D., Palacios-Santander, J.M., and Cubillana-Aguilera, L. (2021). E-Tongues\/Noses Based on Conducting Polymers and Composite Materials: Expanding the Possibilities in Complex Analytical Sensing. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21154976"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"989","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2012.11.110","article-title":"Hybrid electronic tongue based on multisensor data fusion for discrimination of beers","volume":"177","author":"Haddi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_73","first-page":"100077","article-title":"Biosensors for diagnosis of urinary tract infections: Advances and future challenges","volume":"10","author":"Sharma","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mater. Lett. X"}],"container-title":["Biosensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6374\/13\/10\/916\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T21:01:48Z","timestamp":1760130108000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6374\/13\/10\/916"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,5]]},"references-count":73,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,10]]}},"alternative-id":["bios13100916"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/bios13100916","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-6374"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-6374","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,5]]}}}