{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]],"date-time":"2026-09-01T07:05:35Z","timestamp":1788246335496,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":106,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,18]],"date-time":"2024-03-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1710720000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"BHD-IASalud from the Universidad Europea de Madrid"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biosensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Lactate, once merely regarded as an indicator of tissue hypoxia and muscular fatigue, has now gained prominence as a pivotal biomarker across various medical disciplines. Recent research has unveiled its critical role as a high-value prognostic marker in critical care medicine. The current practice of lactate detection involves periodic blood sampling. This approach is invasive and confined to measurements at six-hour intervals, leading to resource expenditure, time consumption, and patient discomfort. This review addresses non-invasive sensors that enable continuous monitoring of lactate in critical care patients. After the introduction, it discusses the iontophoresis system, followed by a description of the structural materials that are universally employed to create an interface between the integumentary system and the sensor. Subsequently, each method is detailed according to its physical principle, outlining its advantages, limitations, and pertinent aspects. The study concludes with a discussion and conclusions, aiming at the design of an intelligent sensor (Internet of Medical Things or IoMT) to facilitate continuous lactate monitoring and enhance the clinical decision-making support system in critical care medicine.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bios14030148","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,18]],"date-time":"2024-03-18T10:54:38Z","timestamp":1710759278000},"page":"148","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":29,"title":["Continuous and Non-Invasive Lactate Monitoring Techniques in Critical Care Patients"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2854-6537","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jose-Luis","family":"Lafuente","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"IASalud, Universidad Europea de Madrid, Villaviciosa de Od\u00f3n, 28670 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"Engineering Department, School of Architecture, Engineering & Design, Universidad Europea de Madrid, Villaviciosa de Od\u00f3n, 28670 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Samuel","family":"Gonz\u00e1lez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IASalud, Universidad Europea de Madrid, Villaviciosa de Od\u00f3n, 28670 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"Intensive Care Unit, Hospital Universitario HLA Moncloa, 28008 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Clara","family":"Aibar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IASalud, Universidad Europea de Madrid, Villaviciosa de Od\u00f3n, 28670 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"Engineering Department, School of Architecture, Engineering & Design, Universidad Europea de Madrid, Villaviciosa de Od\u00f3n, 28670 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Desir\u00e9e","family":"Rivera","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IASalud, Universidad Europea de Madrid, Villaviciosa de Od\u00f3n, 28670 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"Engineering Department, School of Architecture, Engineering & Design, Universidad Europea de Madrid, Villaviciosa de Od\u00f3n, 28670 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eva","family":"Avil\u00e9s","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IASalud, Universidad Europea de Madrid, Villaviciosa de Od\u00f3n, 28670 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"Engineering Department, School of Architecture, Engineering & Design, Universidad Europea de Madrid, Villaviciosa de Od\u00f3n, 28670 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Juan-Jose","family":"Beunza","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IASalud, Universidad Europea de Madrid, Villaviciosa de Od\u00f3n, 28670 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"Research and Doctorate School, Universidad Europea de Madrid, Villaviciosa de Od\u00f3n, 28670 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"Department of Medicine, Health and Sports, Universidad Europea de Madrid, Villaviciosa de Od\u00f3n, 28670 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"814","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jss.2013.02.048","article-title":"Determining the Clinical Value of Lactate in Surgical Patients on the Intensive Care Unit","volume":"183","author":"Meyer","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. 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