{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,15]],"date-time":"2026-10-15T00:02:23Z","timestamp":1792022543343,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":123,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,9]],"date-time":"2024-07-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1720483200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology","award":["12870-KACST-2023-KACST-R-2-1-EI-"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["12870-KACST-2023-KACST-R-2-1-EI-"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biosensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The non-invasive brain sensing modulation technology field is experiencing rapid development, with new techniques constantly emerging. This study delves into the field of non-invasive brain neuromodulation, a safer and potentially effective approach for treating a spectrum of neurological and psychiatric disorders. Unlike traditional deep brain stimulation (DBS) surgery, non-invasive techniques employ ultrasound, electrical currents, and electromagnetic field stimulation to stimulate the brain from outside the skull, thereby eliminating surgery risks and enhancing patient comfort. This study explores the mechanisms of various modalities, including transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), highlighting their potential to address chronic pain, anxiety, Parkinson\u2019s disease, and depression. We also probe into the concept of closed-loop neuromodulation, which personalizes stimulation based on real-time brain activity. While we acknowledge the limitations of current technologies, our study concludes by proposing future research avenues to advance this rapidly evolving field with its immense potential to revolutionize neurological and psychiatric care and lay the foundation for the continuing advancement of innovative non-invasive brain sensing technologies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bios14070335","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,9]],"date-time":"2024-07-09T07:16:07Z","timestamp":1720509367000},"page":"335","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":24,"title":["Non-Invasive Brain Sensing Technologies for Modulation of Neurological Disorders"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-8693-1477","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Salman","family":"Alfihed","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Microelectronics and Semiconductor Institute, King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST), Riyadh 11442, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Majed","family":"Majrashi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bioengineering Institute, King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST), Riyadh 11442, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0146-2552","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Muhammad","family":"Ansary","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neuroscience Center Research Unit, King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Centre, Riyadh 11211, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Naif","family":"Alshamrani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Microelectronics and Semiconductor Institute, King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST), Riyadh 11442, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shahad H.","family":"Albrahim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bioengineering Institute, King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST), Riyadh 11442, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3939-4196","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abdulrahman","family":"Alsolami","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Microelectronics and Semiconductor Institute, King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST), Riyadh 11442, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hala A.","family":"Alamari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bioengineering Institute, King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST), Riyadh 11442, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Adnan","family":"Zaman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Microelectronics and Semiconductor Institute, King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST), Riyadh 11442, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dhaifallah","family":"Almutairi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Microelectronics and Semiconductor Institute, King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST), Riyadh 11442, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9247-7353","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abdulaziz","family":"Kurdi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Advanced Materials Institute, King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST), Riyadh 11442, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mai M.","family":"Alzaydi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bioengineering Institute, King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST), Riyadh 11442, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2489-8703","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Thamer","family":"Tabbakh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Microelectronics and Semiconductor Institute, King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST), Riyadh 11442, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5871-2209","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Faisal","family":"Al-Otaibi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neuroscience Center Research Unit, King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Centre, Riyadh 11211, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pneurobio.2019.03.002","article-title":"Progress in Neuromodulation of the Brain: A Role for Magnetic Nanoparticles?","volume":"177","author":"Roet","year":"2019","journal-title":"Prog. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107860","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropharm.2019.107860","article-title":"Modifying the Progression of Alzheimer\u2019s and Parkinson\u2019s Disease with Deep Brain Stimulation","volume":"171","author":"Jakobs","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neuropharmacology"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1038\/s41593-017-0054-4","article-title":"Studying and Modifying Brain Function with Non-Invasive Brain Stimulation","volume":"21","author":"Nitsche","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Di Biase, L., Falato, E., and Di Lazzaro, V. (2019). Transcranial Focused Ultrasound (Tfus) and Transcranial Unfocused Ultrasound (Tus) Neuromodulation: From Theoretical Principles to Stimulation Practices. Front. Neurol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2019.00549"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kamimura, H.A.S., Conti, A., Toschi, N., and Konofagou, E.E. (2020). Ultrasound Neuromodulation: Mechanisms and the Potential of Multimodal Stimulation for Neuronal Function Assessment. Front. Phys., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphy.2020.00150"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Euskirchen, N., Nitsche, M.A., and van Thriel, C. (2021). Direct Current Stimulation in Cell Culture Systems and Brain Slices\u2014New Approaches for Mechanistic Evaluation of Neuronal Plasticity and Neuromodulation: State of the Art. Cells, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells10123583"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, T., Pan, N., Wang, Y., Liu, C., and Hu, S. (2021). Transcranial Focused Ultrasound Neuromodulation: A Review of the Excitatory and Inhibitory Effects on Brain Activity in Human and Animals. Front. Hum. Neurosci., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2021.749162"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1109\/RBME.2013.2294796","article-title":"Optogenetic Brain Interfaces","volume":"7","author":"Pashaie","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Rev. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Montagni, E., Resta, F., Mascaro, A.L.A., and Pavone, F.S. (2019). Optogenetics in Brain Research: From a Strategy to Investigate Physiological Function to a Therapeutic Tool. Photonics, 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/photonics6030092"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1123","DOI":"10.1007\/s10545-018-0181-4","article-title":"Transcranial Electrical Stimulation (Tes) Mechanisms and Its Effects on Cortical Excitability and Connectivity","volume":"41","author":"Reed","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Inherit. Metab. Dis."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pama, E.A.C., Colzato, L.S., and Hommel, B. (2013). Optogenetics as a Neuromodulation Tool in Cognitive Neuroscience. Front. Media SA, 4.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2013.00610"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1785","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ultrasmedbio.2021.02.016","article-title":"A Comparison of Focused and Unfocused Ultrasound for Microbubble-Mediated Gene Delivery","volume":"47","author":"Anderson","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ultrasound Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coph.2016.11.001","article-title":"Optogenetic Approaches for Dissecting Neuromodulation and Gpcr Signaling in Neural Circuits","volume":"32","author":"Spangler","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"454","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wneu.2016.05.010","article-title":"Brainjacking: Implant Security Issues in Invasive Neuromodulation","volume":"92","author":"Pycroft","year":"2016","journal-title":"World Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"1183","article-title":"Neuromodulation Interventions for Addictive Disorders: Challenges, Promise, and Roadmap for Future Research","volume":"140","author":"Spagnolo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabn4732","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abn4732","article-title":"Miniature Battery-Free Bioelectronics","volume":"382","author":"Nair","year":"2023","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1038\/s41386-022-01386-2","article-title":"Reaching for the Unreachable: Low Intensity Focused Ultrasound for Non-Invasive Deep Brain Stimulation","volume":"48","author":"Philip","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3529","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awab232","article-title":"Potential Optimization of Focused Ultrasound Capsulotomy for Obsessive Compulsive Disorder","volume":"144","author":"Germann","year":"2021","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"865","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awac459","article-title":"Blood\u2013Brain Barrier Opening of the Default Mode Network in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease with Magnetic Resonance-Guided Focused Ultrasound","volume":"146","author":"Meng","year":"2023","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2007.06.026","article-title":"Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation: A Primer","volume":"55","author":"Hallett","year":"2007","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Silva, R., Brunoni, A.R., Goerigk, S., Batistuzzo, M., Costa, D., Diniz, J., Padberg, F., D\u2019Urso, G., Miguel, E., and Shavitt, R. (2020). Efficacy and Safety of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation as a Treatment for Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: A Randomized, Sham-Controlled Trial. Biol. Psychiatry, 87.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2020.02.342"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7435","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-34582-1","article-title":"Enhancing Cognitive Control in Amnestic Mild Cognitive Impairment Via at-Home Non-Invasive Neuromodulation in a Randomized Trial","volume":"13","author":"Jones","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.12701\/jyms.2021.01683","article-title":"Optogenetic Neuromodulation with Gamma Oscillation as a New Strategy for Alzheimer Disease: A Narrative Review","volume":"39","author":"Ko","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Yeungnam Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18213","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-54595-z","article-title":"Cortical Neurodynamics Changes Mediate the Efficacy of a Personalized Neuromodulation against Multiple Sclerosis Fatigue","volume":"9","author":"Porcaro","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.1177\/875647939401000508","article-title":"Developing a Working Knowledge of Ulrasound Intensities","volume":"10","author":"Barwick","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Diagn. Med. Sonogr."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fmre.2022.02.010","article-title":"Ultrasound Deep Brain Stimulation Decelerates Telomere Shortening in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease and Aging Mice","volume":"3","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Fundam. Res."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"770","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2024.3363912","article-title":"Modulatory Effect of Low-Intensity Transcranial Ultrasound Stimulation on Behaviour and Neural Oscillation in Mouse Models of Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"32","author":"Yang","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Neural Syst. Rehabil. Eng."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"502","DOI":"10.1007\/s13311-023-01363-7","article-title":"Pulsed Focused Ultrasound Reduces Hippocampal Volume Loss and Improves Behavioral Performance in the Kainic Acid Rat Model of Epilepsy","volume":"20","author":"Chu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neurotherapeutics"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59900","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3073506","article-title":"Modulation of Eeg Frequency Characteristics by Low-Intensity Focused Ultrasound Stimulation in a Pentylenetetrazol-Induced Epilepsy Model","volume":"9","author":"Kim","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1186\/s13256-023-04194-4","article-title":"Durable Effects of Deep Brain Ultrasonic Neuromodulation on Major Depression: A Case Report","volume":"17","author":"Riis","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Med. Case Rep."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3375","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2021.3071807","article-title":"Transcranial Ultrasound Stimulation Suppresses Neuroinflammation in a Chronic Mouse Model of Parkinson\u2019s Disease","volume":"68","author":"Zhou","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-022-03824-7","article-title":"Low-Intensity Pulsed Ultrasound Triggers a Beneficial Neuromodulation in Dementia Mice with Chronic Cerebral Hypoperfusion Via Activation of Hippocampal Fndc5\/Irisin Signaling","volume":"21","author":"Song","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2332","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2022.3199813","article-title":"Preventive and Therapeutic Effects of Low-Intensity Ultrasound Stimulation on Migraine in Rats","volume":"30","author":"Yao","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Neural Syst. Rehabil. Eng."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1080\/17434440.2021.1909470","article-title":"The Future of Neuromodulation: Smart Neuromodulation","volume":"18","author":"Maciaczyk","year":"2021","journal-title":"Expert. Rev. Med. Devices"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ni, R., Yuan, Y., Yang, L., Meng, Q., Zhu, Y., Zhong, Y., Cao, Z., Zhang, S., Yao, W., and Lv, D. (2022). Novel Non-Invasive Transcranial Electrical Stimulation for Parkinson\u2019s Disease. Front. Aging Neurosci., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2022.880897"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Johnson, M.I. (2021). Resolving Long-Standing Uncertainty About the Clinical Efficacy of Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation (Tens) to Relieve Pain: A Comprehensive Review of Factors Influencing Outcome. Medicina, 57.","DOI":"10.3390\/medicina57040378"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u015alusarczyk, W.T., Nejman, T.J., Laskowski, M., Koperczak, A., Stanuszek, A., and Ciekalski, M. (2023). Evaluation of Patient\u2019s Quality of Life before and after Implantation of Abbott\u2019s Proclaim\u2122 Xr Spinal Cord Stimulator with Burstdr\u2122 Stimulation in Chronic Pain Syndrome. Medicina, 59.","DOI":"10.3390\/medicina59122192"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"605","DOI":"10.3171\/2016.11.JNS161162","article-title":"Chronic Multisite Brain Recordings from a Totally Implantable Bidirectional Neural Interface: Experience in 5 Patients with Parkinson\u2019s Disease","volume":"128","author":"Swann","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"843","DOI":"10.1111\/ner.13137","article-title":"Feasibility of Interferential and Pulsed Transcranial Electrical Stimulation for Neuromodulation at the Human Scale","volume":"24","author":"Howell","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neuromodulation Technol. Neural Interface"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jara, J.S., Agger, S., and Hollis, E.R. (2020). Functional Electrical Stimulation and the Modulation of the Axon Regeneration Program. Front. Cell Dev. Biol., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcell.2020.00736"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1106","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(85)92413-4","article-title":"Non-Invasive Magnetic Stimulation of Human Motor Cortex","volume":"325","author":"Barker","year":"1985","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2463","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms3463","article-title":"Activation of the Central Nervous System Induced by Micro-Magnetic Stimulation","volume":"4","author":"Park","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"610","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2013.2244890","article-title":"Neuromodulation for Brain Disorders: Challenges and Opportunities","volume":"60","author":"Johnson","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rehab.2015.05.005","article-title":"Basic Principles of Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (Tms) and Repetitive Tms (Rtms)","volume":"58","author":"Klomjai","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ann. Phys. Rehabil. Med."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1600889","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.1600889","article-title":"Implantable Microcoils for Intracortical Magnetic Stimulation","volume":"2","author":"Lee","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-neuro-070918-050241","article-title":"Magnetic Strategies for Nervous System Control","volume":"42","author":"Christiansen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.4103\/ipj.ipj_88_18","article-title":"Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation: A Review of Its Evolution and Current Applications","volume":"27","author":"Chail","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ind. Psychiatry J."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"professional, C. C. m (2024, July 07). Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (Tms). Available online: https:\/\/my.clevelandclinic.org\/health\/treatments\/17827-transcranial-magnetic-stimulation-tms."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, X., Qiu, F., Hou, L., and Wang, X. (2022). Review of Noninvasive or Minimally Invasive Deep Brain Stimulation. Front. Behav. Neurosci., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnbeh.2021.820017"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.1111\/ner.12376","article-title":"Automatic Vagus Nerve Stimulation Triggered by Ictal Tachycardia: Clinical Outcomes and Device Performance\u2014The Us E-37 Trial","volume":"19","author":"Fisher","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neuromodulation Technol. Neural Interface"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.4103\/indianjpsychiatry.indianjpsychiatry_492_22","article-title":"Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Therapeutic Use of Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation in Neuropsychiatric Disorders","volume":"65","author":"Tikka","year":"2023","journal-title":"Indian. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brs.2014.10.020","article-title":"Tms Brain Mapping in Less Than Two Minutes","volume":"8","author":"Perenboom","year":"2015","journal-title":"Brain Stimul."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"921","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms1914","article-title":"Microscopic Magnetic Stimulation of Neural Tissue","volume":"3","author":"Bonmassar","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Y., and Guo, L. (2016). Nanomaterial-Enabled Neural Stimulation. Front. Neurosci., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2016.00069"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1007\/s13534-021-00193-w","article-title":"Nanomaterials-Assisted Thermally Induced Neuromodulation","volume":"11","author":"Yang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biomed. Eng. Lett."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Katiyar, J.K., Panwar, V., and Ahlawat, N. (2022). Nanomaterials for Biomedical Engineering Applications. Nanomaterials for Advanced Technologies, Springer Nature.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-19-1384-6"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"031001","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2552\/acd870","article-title":"Physical Mechanisms of Emerging Neuromodulation Modalities","volume":"20","author":"Karatum","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Neural Eng."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, C., Ou, W., Cui, Q., Pang, Y., Liao, M., Shen, J., Baber, M.Z., Maharajan, C., and Ghosh, U. (2024). Theoretical Exploration and Controller Design of Bifurcation in a Plankton Population Dynamical System Accompanying Delay. Discret. Contin. Dyn. Syst.-S.","DOI":"10.3934\/dcdss.2024036"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, C., Lin, J., Zhao, Y., Cui, Q., Ou, W., Pang, Y., Liu, Z., Liao, M., and Li, P. (2024). New Results on Bifurcation for Fractional-Order Octonion-Valued Neural Networks Involving Delays. Netw. Comput. Neural Syst., 1\u201353.","DOI":"10.1080\/0954898X.2024.2332662"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2023.11.009","article-title":"Optogenetic Neuromodulation in Inflammatory Pain","volume":"536","author":"Liang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1038\/s41398-023-02565-5","article-title":"Closing the Loop between Brain and Electrical Stimulation: Towards Precision Neuromodulation Treatments","volume":"13","author":"Soleimani","year":"2023","journal-title":"Transl. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1186\/s12984-022-01094-4","article-title":"Neuron Matters: Neuromodulation with Electromagnetic Stimulation Must Consider Neurons as Dynamic Identities","volume":"19","author":"Ye","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Neuroeng. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1908999","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.201908999","article-title":"Neuromodulation Management of Chronic Neuropathic Pain in the Central Nervous System","volume":"30","author":"Yu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2730","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-23025-y","article-title":"Non-Invasive, Opsin-Free Mid-Infrared Modulation Activates Cortical Neurons and Accelerates Associative Learning","volume":"12","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_65","first-page":"1201","article-title":"Near-Infrared Light-Responsive Size-Selective Lateral Flow Chip for Single-Cell Manipulation of Circulating Tumor Cells","volume":"95","author":"Lv","year":"2022","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, X.-H., Gu, T., Liu, X.-W., Han, P., Lv, H.-L., Wang, Y.-L., and Xiao, P. (2021). The Effect of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation and Functional Electrical Stimulation on the Lower Limb Function of Stroke Patients. Front. Neurosci., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2021.685931"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1133","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neurol.2021.08.004","article-title":"Neurofeedback for Cognitive Enhancement and Intervention and Brain Plasticity","volume":"177","author":"Loriette","year":"2021","journal-title":"Rev. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carvalho, S., Leite, J., and Fregni, F. (2018). Transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation and Transcranial Random Noise Stimulation. Neuromodulation, Academic Press.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-805353-9.00136-4"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S316","DOI":"10.4103\/0028-3886.302453","article-title":"Emerging Technologies and Indications of Neuromodulation and Increasing Role of Non Invasive Neuromodulation","volume":"68","author":"Zibly","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurology India"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-neuro-061010-113817","article-title":"The Development and Application of Optogenetics","volume":"34","author":"Fenno","year":"2011","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_71","first-page":"406","article-title":"Brain Neuromodulation Techniques: A Review","volume":"22","author":"Lewis","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.1007\/s13311-014-0280-3","article-title":"Closed-Loop Neurostimulation: The Clinical Experience","volume":"11","author":"Sun","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neurotherapeutics"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1301","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2013.08.028","article-title":"Spike-Timing-Dependent Plasticity in Primate Corticospinal Connections Induced During Free Behavior","volume":"80","author":"Nishimura","year":"2013","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21177","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1316885110","article-title":"Restoration of Function after Brain Damage Using a Neural Prosthesis","volume":"110","author":"Guggenmos","year":"2013","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conb.2015.03.007","article-title":"Brain-Controlled Neuromuscular Stimulation to Drive Neural Plasticity and Functional Recovery","volume":"33","author":"Ethier","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yebeh.2014.06.023","article-title":"Seizure Detection, Seizure Prediction, and Closed-Loop Warning Systems in Epilepsy","volume":"37","author":"Ramgopal","year":"2014","journal-title":"Epilepsy Behav."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"994","DOI":"10.1111\/epi.13740","article-title":"Brain-Responsive Neurostimulation in Patients with Medically Intractable Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy","volume":"58","author":"Geller","year":"2017","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seizure.2018.03.022","article-title":"Clinical Outcomes of Vns Therapy with Aspiresr\u00ae (Including Cardiac-Based Seizure Detection) at a Large Complex Epilepsy and Surgery Centre","volume":"58","author":"Hamilton","year":"2018","journal-title":"Seizure"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2448","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinph.2018.08.012","article-title":"Towards Closed-Loop Deep Brain Stimulation for Freezing of Gait in Parkinson\u2019s Disease","volume":"129","author":"Gilat","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Romero-Ugalde, H.M., Le Rolle, V., Bonnet, J.-L., Henry, C., Bel, A., Mabo, P., Carrault, G., and Hern\u00e1ndez, A.I. (2017). A Novel Controller Based on State-Transition Models for Closed-Loop Vagus Nerve Stimulation: Application to Heart Rate Regulation. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0186068"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E2","DOI":"10.3171\/2018.5.FOCUS18173","article-title":"Approaches to Closed-Loop Deep Brain Stimulation for Movement Disorders","volume":"45","author":"Kuo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neurosurg. Focus."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gollisch, T., and Herz, A.V.M. (2012). The Iso-Response Method: Measuring Neuronal Stimulus Integration with Closed-Loop Experiments. Front. Neural Circuits, 6.","DOI":"10.3389\/fncir.2012.00104"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1111\/ner.12684","article-title":"Effective Relief of Pain and Associated Symptoms with Closed-Loop Spinal Cord Stimulation System: Preliminary Results of the Avalon Study","volume":"21","author":"Russo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neuromodulation Technol. Neural Interface"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255ra133","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.3008325","article-title":"Closed-Loop Neuromodulation of Spinal Sensorimotor Circuits Controls Refined Locomotion after Complete Spinal Cord Injury","volume":"6","author":"Wenger","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"768","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yebeh.2004.05.008","article-title":"Complete Heart Block with Ventricular Asystole During Left Vagus Nerve Stimulation for Epilepsy","volume":"5","author":"Ali","year":"2004","journal-title":"Epilepsy Behav."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nishimura, Y., Perlmutter, S.I., and Fetz, E.E. (2013). Restoration of Upper Limb Movement Via Artificial Corticospinal and Musculospinal Connections in a Monkey with Spinal Cord Injury. Front. Neural Circuits, 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fncir.2013.00057"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e32058","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.32058","article-title":"Closed-Loop Neuromodulation Restores Network Connectivity and Motor Control after Spinal Cord Injury","volume":"7","author":"Ganzer","year":"2018","journal-title":"eLife"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1186\/s12984-017-0295-1","article-title":"Advances in Closed-Loop Deep Brain Stimulation Devices","volume":"14","author":"Parastarfeizabadi","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Neuroeng. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"871","DOI":"10.1089\/neu.2015.3972","article-title":"Vagus Nerve Stimulation Delivered with Motor Training Enhances Recovery of Function after Traumatic Brain Injury","volume":"33","author":"Pruitt","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Neurotrauma"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1080\/09540261.2017.1282438","article-title":"Closed-Loop Neuromodulation Systems: Next-Generation Treatments for Psychiatric Illness","volume":"29","author":"Lo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. Rev. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nec.2013.08.006","article-title":"Creating the Feedback Loop: Closed-Loop Neurostimulation","volume":"25","author":"Hebb","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neurosurg. Clin."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12847","DOI":"10.3390\/s140712847","article-title":"Dry Eeg Electrodes","volume":"14","author":"Valle","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"a034314","DOI":"10.1101\/cshperspect.a034314","article-title":"Closed-Loop Neuromodulation in Physiological and Translational Research","volume":"9","author":"Zanos","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Med."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arle, J., and Shils, J.L. (2011). Essential Neuromodulation, Academic Press.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-381409-8.00001-2"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1376","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinph.2006.02.006","article-title":"A Comparison of Subdermal Wire Electrodes with Collodion-Applied Disk Electrodes in Long-Term Eeg Recordings in Icu","volume":"117","author":"Young","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1109\/RBME.2011.2172408","article-title":"Brain-Computer Interfaces Using Electrocorticographic Signals","volume":"4","author":"Schalk","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Rev. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1021\/cn5002864","article-title":"Intracortical Recording Interfaces: Current Challenges to Chronic Recording Function","volume":"6","author":"Gunasekera","year":"2015","journal-title":"ACS Chem. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-444-52137-8.00018-8","article-title":"Spinal Cord Stimulation: Therapeutic Benefits and Movement Generation after Spinal Cord Injury","volume":"109","author":"Tator","year":"2012","journal-title":"Handb. Clin. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rijnbeek, E.H., Eleveld, N., and Olthuis, W. (2018). Update on Peripheral Nerve Electrodes for Closed-Loop Neuroprosthetics. Front. Neurosci., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2018.00350"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oie, K.S., Gordon, S., and McDowell, K. (2018). The Multi-Aspect Measurement Approach: Rationale, Technologies, Tools, and Challenges for Systems Design. Designing Soldier Systems, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781315576756-11"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yogev, D., Goldberg, T., Arami, A., Tejman-Yarden, S., Winkler, T.E., and Maoz, B.M. (2023). Current State of the Art and Future Directions for Implantable Sensors in Medical Technology: Clinical Needs and Engineering Challenges. APL Bioeng., 7.","DOI":"10.1063\/5.0152290"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-0003-9-21","article-title":"A Review of Wearable Sensors and Systems with Application in Rehabilitation","volume":"9","author":"Patel","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Neuroeng. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Raducanu, B.C., Yazicioglu, R.F., Lopez, C.M., Ballini, M., Putzeys, J., Wang, S., Andrei, A., Rochus, V., Welkenhuysen, M., and Van Helleputte, N. (2017). Time Multiplexed Active Neural Probe with 1356 Parallel Recording Sites. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17102388"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1800534","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201800534","article-title":"Recent Advances in Materials, Devices, and Systems for Neural Interfaces","volume":"30","author":"Won","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Holleman, J. (2016). Design Considerations for Neural Amplifiers, IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/EMBC.2016.7592176"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneumeth.2010.06.005","article-title":"Generalized Framework for Stimulus Artifact Removal","volume":"191","author":"Erez","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Neurosci. Methods"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20130761","DOI":"10.1098\/rsif.2013.0761","article-title":"An Automated Algorithm for Online Detection of Fragmented Qrs and Identification of Its Various Morphologies","volume":"10","author":"Maheshwari","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. R. Soc. Interface"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conb.2017.12.007","article-title":"Implantable, Wireless Device Platforms for Neuroscience Research","volume":"50","author":"Gutruf","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1111\/ner.12170","article-title":"Advancing Neuromodulation through Control Systems: A General Framework and Case Study in Posture-Responsive Stimulation","volume":"17","author":"Denison","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neuromodulation Technol. Neural Interface"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Van Dongen, M., and Serdijn, W. (2016). Design of Efficient and Safe Neural Stimulators, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-28131-5"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.bioeng.10.061807.160518","article-title":"Neural Stimulation and Recording Electrodes","volume":"10","author":"Cogan","year":"2008","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneumeth.2004.10.020","article-title":"Electrical Stimulation of Excitable Tissue: Design of Efficacious and Safe Protocols","volume":"141","author":"Merrill","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Neurosci. Methods"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1406","DOI":"10.1039\/C7LC00103G","article-title":"Microfluidic Neural Probes: In Vivo Tools for Advancing Neuroscience","volume":"17","author":"Sim","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lab. Chip"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alam, M.J., and Chen, J.D.Z. (2023). Non-Invasive Neuromodulation: An Emerging Intervention for Visceral Pain in Gastrointestinal Disorders. Bioelectron. Med., 9.","DOI":"10.1186\/s42234-023-00130-5"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2430","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2013.10.029","article-title":"Low-Intensity Focused Ultrasound Modulates Monkey Visuomotor Behavior","volume":"23","author":"Deffieux","year":"2013","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"681","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2010.05.008","article-title":"Transcranial Pulsed Ultrasound Stimulates Intact Brain Circuits","volume":"66","author":"Tufail","year":"2010","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2018.2821201","article-title":"Noninvasive Ultrasonic Neuromodulation in Freely Moving Mice","volume":"66","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2101934","DOI":"10.1002\/advs.202101934","article-title":"Precise Ultrasound Neuromodulation in a Deep Brain Region Using Nano Gas Vesicles as Actuators","volume":"8","author":"Hou","year":"2021","journal-title":"Adv. Sci."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1995","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.23981","article-title":"Neuromodulation with Single-Element Transcranial Focused Ultrasound in Human Thalamus","volume":"39","author":"Legon","year":"2018","journal-title":"Hum. Brain Mapp."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1109","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2019.01.019","article-title":"Manipulation of Subcortical and Deep Cortical Activity in the Primate Brain Using Transcranial Focused Ultrasound Stimulation","volume":"101","author":"Folloni","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1803474","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201803474","article-title":"Expanding the Toolbox of Upconversion Nanoparticles for In Vivo Optogenetics and Neuromodulation","volume":"31","author":"All","year":"2019","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"647","DOI":"10.1038\/nature17183","article-title":"Bidirectional Electromagnetic Control of the Hypothalamus Regulates Feeding and Metabolism","volume":"531","author":"Stanley","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4323","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.3071-19.2020","article-title":"Frequency-Specific Optogenetic Deep Brain Stimulation of Subthalamic Nucleus Improves Parkinsonian Motor Behaviors","volume":"40","author":"Yu","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."}],"container-title":["Biosensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6374\/14\/7\/335\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T15:11:59Z","timestamp":1760109119000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6374\/14\/7\/335"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,9]]},"references-count":123,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,7]]}},"alternative-id":["bios14070335"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/bios14070335","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-6374"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-6374","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,9]]}}}