{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,23]],"date-time":"2025-12-23T10:45:23Z","timestamp":1766486723470,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":59,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,22]],"date-time":"2025-01-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1737504000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o de Amparo a Pesquisa do Estado de Minas Gerais (FAPEMIG)","award":["APQ-00207-21","APQ-02363-22","APQ-04955-23","RED-00032-22","RED-00196-23","404210\/2021-0","001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["APQ-00207-21","APQ-02363-22","APQ-04955-23","RED-00032-22","RED-00196-23","404210\/2021-0","001"]}]},{"name":"Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cient\u00edfico e Tecnol\u00f3gico (CNPq)","award":["APQ-00207-21","APQ-02363-22","APQ-04955-23","RED-00032-22","RED-00196-23","404210\/2021-0","001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["APQ-00207-21","APQ-02363-22","APQ-04955-23","RED-00032-22","RED-00196-23","404210\/2021-0","001"]}]},{"name":"Coordena\u00e7\u00e3o de Aperfei\u00e7oamento de Pessoal de N\u00edvel Superior, Brazil (CAPES)","award":["APQ-00207-21","APQ-02363-22","APQ-04955-23","RED-00032-22","RED-00196-23","404210\/2021-0","001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["APQ-00207-21","APQ-02363-22","APQ-04955-23","RED-00032-22","RED-00196-23","404210\/2021-0","001"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biosensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic has created an urgent need for rapid, accurate, and cost-effective diagnostic tools. In this study, an economical electrochemical immunosensor for the rapid diagnosis of COVID-19 was developed and optimized based on charge transfer resistance (Rct) values obtained by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) from the interaction between antibodies (anti-SARS-CoV-2) immobilized as a bioreceptor and the virus (SARS-CoV-2). The sensor uses modified pencil graphite electrodes (PGE) coated with poly(4-hydroxybenzoic acid), anti-SARS-CoV-2, and silver nanoparticles. The immobilization of anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies was optimized at a concentration of 1:250 for 30 min, followed by blocking the surface with 0.01% bovine serum albumin for 10 min. The optimal conditions for virus detection in clinical samples were a 1:10 dilution with a response time of 20 min. The immunosensor responded linearly in the range of 0.2\u20132.5 \u00d7 106 particles\/\u03bcL. From the relationship between the obtained signal and the concentration of the analyzed sample, the limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantification (LOQ) obtained were 1.21 \u00d7 106 and 4.04 \u00d7 106 particles\/\u03bcL, respectively. The device did not cross-react with other viruses, including Influenza A and B, HIV, and Vaccinia virus. The relative standard deviation (RSD) of the six immunosensors prepared using the shared-pool sample was 3.87. Decreases of 22.3% and 12.4% were observed in the response values of the ten immunosensors stored at 25 \u00b0C and 4.0 \u00b0C, respectively. The sensor provides timely and accurate results with high sensitivity and specificity, offering a cost-effective alternative to the existing diagnostic methods.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bios15020067","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,22]],"date-time":"2025-01-22T05:50:53Z","timestamp":1737525053000},"page":"67","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Development and Optimization of a Cost-Effective Electrochemical Immunosensor for Rapid COVID-19 Diagnosis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Tha\u00eds Machado","family":"Lima","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Science and Technology, Federal University of the Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys (UFVJM), Diamantina 39100-000, Minas Gerais, Brazil"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Daiane Martins","family":"Leal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Science and Technology, Federal University of the Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys (UFVJM), Diamantina 39100-000, Minas Gerais, Brazil"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zirlane Coelho","family":"Ferreira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Science and Technology, Federal University of the Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys (UFVJM), Diamantina 39100-000, Minas Gerais, Brazil"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Fernando de Jesus","family":"Souza","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medicine, Federal University of the Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys (UFVJM), Diamantina 39100-000, Minas Gerais, Brazil"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Danilo Bretas","family":"de Oliveira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medicine, Federal University of the Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys (UFVJM), Diamantina 39100-000, Minas Gerais, Brazil"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6908-7237","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Etel","family":"Rocha-Vieira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medicine, Federal University of the Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys (UFVJM), Diamantina 39100-000, Minas Gerais, Brazil"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5786-7524","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Helen Rodrigues","family":"Martins","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pharmacy Department, Federal University of the Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys (UFVJM), Diamantina 39100-000, Minas Gerais, Brazil"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Arnaldo C\u00e9sar","family":"Pereira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Natural Sciences, Federal University of S\u00e3o Jo\u00e3o del-Rei (UFSJ), S\u00e3o Jo\u00e3o del-Rei 36307-352, Minas Gerais, Brazil"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5431-0069","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lucas Franco","family":"Ferreira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Science and Technology, Federal University of the Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys (UFVJM), Diamantina 39100-000, Minas Gerais, Brazil"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2020722","DOI":"10.1590\/s1679-49742021000200002","article-title":"O Efeito Da Testagem Laboratorial Nos Indicadores de Acompanhamento Da COVID-19: Uma An\u00e1lise Dos 50 Pa\u00edses Com Maior N\u00famero de Casos","volume":"30","author":"Pilecco","year":"2021","journal-title":"Epidemiol. 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