{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T04:35:23Z","timestamp":1787027723747,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":13,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,3]],"date-time":"2025-06-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1748908800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000024","name":"Canadian Institutes of Health Research","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PJT-178317"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PJT-178317"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000024","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biosensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Identifying parathyroid glands during surgery is challenging and time-consuming due to their small size (3\u20135 mm) and camouflaged appearance in the background of the thyroid, lymph nodes, fat, and other neck structures. For the gland itself, it is also important to differentiate abnormal ones from normal ones. Accidental damage or removal of the normal glands can result in complications like hypocalcemia, which may necessitate lifelong medication dependence, and, in extreme cases, lead to death. The study of autofluorescence optical properties of normal and abnormal parathyroid glands and the surrounding tissue will be helpful for developing non-invasive detection devices. The near-infrared (NIR) autofluorescence characteristics of parathyroid and thyroid tissues have been studied extensively and are now used for parathyroid gland detection during surgery. Additionally, there have been a few reports on the UV-visible light-excited autofluorescence characteristics of these tissues with a focus on spectroscopy. However, there is a lack of high-resolution, side-by-side autofluorescence imaging comparisons of both tissue types under various excitation wavelengths, ranging from visible to NIR. We developed a standalone tabletop autofluorescence imaging system to acquire images of ex vivo specimens in the operating room under different excitation wavelengths: visible 405 nm, 454 nm, 520 nm, 628 nm, and NIR 780 nm. Autofluorescence imaging features of parathyroid adenomas for each excitation wavelength were described and compared. It was found that visible light excites much stronger autofluorescence from parathyroid adenoma tissue compared to NIR light. However, NIR excitation provides the best intensity difference\/contrast between parathyroid adenoma and thyroid tissue, making it optimal for differentiating these two tissue types, and detecting parathyroid adenoma during surgery. The high fluorescent site under the NIR 780 nm excitation also generates high fluorescence under visible excitation wavelengths. Heterogeneous fluorescence patterns were observed in most of the parathyroid adenoma cases across all the excitation wavelengths.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bios15060352","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,3]],"date-time":"2025-06-03T03:57:18Z","timestamp":1748923038000},"page":"352","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Autofluorescence Imaging of Parathyroid and Thyroid Under Visible and Near-IR Light Excitation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8086-9432","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhenguo","family":"Wu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"BC Cancer Research Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V5Z 1L3, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sam M.","family":"Wiseman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Surgery, St. Paul\u2019s Hospital & University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6Z 1Y6, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3557-2407","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Haishan","family":"Zeng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"BC Cancer Research Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V5Z 1L3, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"067012","DOI":"10.1117\/1.3583571","article-title":"Near-infrared autofluorescence for the detection of parathyroid glands","volume":"16","author":"Paras","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Opt."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4574","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2014-2503","article-title":"Label-free intraoperative parathyroid localization with near-infrared autofluorescence imaging","volume":"99","author":"McWade","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4646","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2016-2558","article-title":"Intraoperative real-time localization of normal parathyroid glands with autofluorescence imaging","volume":"101","author":"Kim","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"516","DOI":"10.21037\/gs.2017.05.08","article-title":"Intraoperative real-time localization of parathyroid gland with near infrared fluorescence imaging","volume":"6","author":"Kim","year":"2017","journal-title":"Gland. Surg."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"730","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jamcollsurg.2019.01.017","article-title":"Enhancing Parathyroid Gland Visualization Using a Near Infrared Fluorescence-Based Overlay Imaging System","volume":"228","author":"McWade","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Surg."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1150","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjsurg.2021.03.005","article-title":"Parathyroid identification during thyroid and parathyroid operations: A pilot study evaluating a novel low cost autofluorescence based device","volume":"221","author":"Wiseman","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Surg."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"868","DOI":"10.1016\/j.surg.2020.09.014","article-title":"Current state of intraoperative use of near infrared fluorescence for parathyroid identification and preservation","volume":"169","author":"Solorzano","year":"2021","journal-title":"Surgery"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"zraa047","DOI":"10.1093\/bjsopen\/zraa047","article-title":"Autofluorescence pattern of parathyroid adenomas","volume":"5","author":"Demarchi","year":"2021","journal-title":"BJS open"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"623","DOI":"10.1016\/j.otohns.2004.05.014","article-title":"The fluorescence of thyroid tissue","volume":"131","author":"Pitman","year":"2004","journal-title":"Otolaryngol.-Head Neck Surg."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1155\/2005\/403826","article-title":"Fluorescence spectroscopy of normal and follicular cancer samples from human thyroid","volume":"19","author":"Giubileo","year":"2005","journal-title":"Spectroscopy"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1709","DOI":"10.1177\/0003702816641120","article-title":"Optical Characterization of Parathyroid Tissues","volume":"70","author":"Brandao","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Spectrosc."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1016\/j.surg.2018.08.006","article-title":"Heterogeneous and low-intensity parathyroid autofluorescence: Patterns suggesting hyperfunction at parathyroid exploration","volume":"165","author":"Kose","year":"2019","journal-title":"Surgery"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1002\/hed.27900","article-title":"Camera-based near-infrared autofluorescence versus visual identification in total thyroidectomy for parathyroid function preservation: Systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials","volume":"47","author":"Canali","year":"2025","journal-title":"Head Neck"}],"container-title":["Biosensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6374\/15\/6\/352\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T17:46:20Z","timestamp":1760031980000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6374\/15\/6\/352"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,3]]},"references-count":13,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6]]}},"alternative-id":["bios15060352"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/bios15060352","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-6374"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-6374","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,3]]}}}