{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,4]],"date-time":"2026-08-04T17:11:50Z","timestamp":1785863510707,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":26,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,3]],"date-time":"2025-07-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1751500800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"N.I.H.\u2014NIBIB","award":["R03 EB027336"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R03 EB027336"]}]},{"name":"N.I.H.\u2014NIBIB","award":["Arizona WearTech Center"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Arizona WearTech Center"]}]},{"name":"Sigismunda Palumbo Charitable Trust","award":["R03 EB027336"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R03 EB027336"]}]},{"name":"Sigismunda Palumbo Charitable Trust","award":["Arizona WearTech Center"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Arizona WearTech Center"]}]},{"name":"Arizona Commerce Authority and Partnership for Economic Innovation","award":["R03 EB027336"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R03 EB027336"]}]},{"name":"Arizona Commerce Authority and Partnership for Economic Innovation","award":["Arizona WearTech Center"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Arizona WearTech Center"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biosensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Ketones, which are key biomarkers of fat oxidation, are relevant for metabolic health maintenance and disease development, making continuous monitoring essential. In this study, we introduce a novel colorimetric sensor designed for potential continuous acetone detection in biological fluids. The sensor features a polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) shell that encapsulates a sensitive and specific liquid-core acetone-sensing probe. The microsphere sensors were characterized by evaluating their size, PDMS shell thickness, colorimetric response, and sensitivity under realistic conditions, including 100% relative humidity (RH) and CO2 interference. The microsphere size and sensor sensitivity can be controlled by modifying the fabrication parameters. Critically, the sensor showed high selectivity for acetone detection, with negligible interference from CO2 concentrations up to 4%. In addition, the sensor displayed good reproducibility (CV &lt; 5%) and stability under realistic storage conditions (over two weeks at 4 \u00b0C). Finally, the accuracy of the microsphere sensor was validated against a gold standard gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) method using simulated and real breath samples from healthy individuals and type 1 diabetes patients. The correlation between the microsphere sensor and GC-MS produced a linear fit with a slope of 0.948 and an adjusted R-squared value of 0.954. Therefore, the liquid-core microsphere-based sensor is a promising platform for acetone body fluid analysis.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bios15070429","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,3]],"date-time":"2025-07-03T08:22:07Z","timestamp":1751530927000},"page":"429","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["A Microsphere-Based Sensor for Point-of-Care and Non-Invasive Acetone Detection"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Oscar","family":"Osorio Perez","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering for Matter, Transport and Energy, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA"},{"name":"Center for Bioelectronics and Biosensors, Biodesign Institute, Arizona State University, 1001 S McAllister Ave., Tempe, AZ 85281, USA"},{"name":"Medical Devices and Methods Laboratory, Health Futures Center, Arizona State University, 6161 E. Mayo Blvd., Phoenix, AZ 85054, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ngan Anh","family":"Nguyen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering for Matter, Transport and Energy, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA"},{"name":"Center for Bioelectronics and Biosensors, Biodesign Institute, Arizona State University, 1001 S McAllister Ave., Tempe, AZ 85281, USA"},{"name":"Medical Devices and Methods Laboratory, Health Futures Center, Arizona State University, 6161 E. Mayo Blvd., Phoenix, AZ 85054, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7107-8636","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Landon","family":"Denham","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering for Matter, Transport and Energy, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA"},{"name":"Center for Bioelectronics and Biosensors, Biodesign Institute, Arizona State University, 1001 S McAllister Ave., Tempe, AZ 85281, USA"},{"name":"Medical Devices and Methods Laboratory, Health Futures Center, Arizona State University, 6161 E. Mayo Blvd., Phoenix, AZ 85054, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Asher","family":"Hendricks","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering for Matter, Transport and Energy, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA"},{"name":"Center for Bioelectronics and Biosensors, Biodesign Institute, Arizona State University, 1001 S McAllister Ave., Tempe, AZ 85281, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2252-0715","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rodrigo E.","family":"Dominguez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering for Matter, Transport and Energy, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA"},{"name":"Center for Bioelectronics and Biosensors, Biodesign Institute, Arizona State University, 1001 S McAllister Ave., Tempe, AZ 85281, USA"},{"name":"Medical Devices and Methods Laboratory, Health Futures Center, Arizona State University, 6161 E. Mayo Blvd., Phoenix, AZ 85054, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eun Ju","family":"Jeong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering for Matter, Transport and Energy, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA"},{"name":"Center for Bioelectronics and Biosensors, Biodesign Institute, Arizona State University, 1001 S McAllister Ave., Tempe, AZ 85281, USA"},{"name":"Medical Devices and Methods Laboratory, Health Futures Center, Arizona State University, 6161 E. Mayo Blvd., Phoenix, AZ 85054, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6867-7101","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marcio S.","family":"Carvalho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pontif\u00edcia Universidade Catolica do Rio de Janeiro, Pr\u00e9dio Pe. La\u00e9rcio Dias de Moura-R. Marqu\u00eas de S\u00e3o Vicente, 225-6\u00baandar\u2013G\u00e1vea, Rio de Janeiro 22451-900, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mateus","family":"Lima","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pontif\u00edcia Universidade Catolica do Rio de Janeiro, Pr\u00e9dio Pe. La\u00e9rcio Dias de Moura-R. Marqu\u00eas de S\u00e3o Vicente, 225-6\u00baandar\u2013G\u00e1vea, Rio de Janeiro 22451-900, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1111-9069","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jarrett","family":"Eshima","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biological and Health Systems Engineering, Arizona State University, G Wing, E. Tyler Mall, Tempe, AZ 85281, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8898-4467","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nanxi","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Bioelectronics and Biosensors, Biodesign Institute, Arizona State University, 1001 S McAllister Ave., Tempe, AZ 85281, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1758-624X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Barbara","family":"Smith","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biological and Health Systems Engineering, Arizona State University, G Wing, E. Tyler Mall, Tempe, AZ 85281, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2680-0503","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shaopeng","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Bioelectronics and Biosensors, Biodesign Institute, Arizona State University, 1001 S McAllister Ave., Tempe, AZ 85281, USA"},{"name":"School of Biological and Health Systems Engineering, Arizona State University, G Wing, E. Tyler Mall, Tempe, AZ 85281, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Doina","family":"Kulick","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mayo Clinic Arizona, 13208 E. Shea Blvd., Scottsdale, AZ 85259, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Erica","family":"Forzani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering for Matter, Transport and Energy, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA"},{"name":"Center for Bioelectronics and Biosensors, Biodesign Institute, Arizona State University, 1001 S McAllister Ave., Tempe, AZ 85281, USA"},{"name":"Medical Devices and Methods Laboratory, Health Futures Center, Arizona State University, 6161 E. Mayo Blvd., Phoenix, AZ 85054, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1253506","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2023.1253506","article-title":"Metabolic diseases and healthy aging: Identifying environmental and behavioral risk factors and promoting public health","volume":"11","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1055\/a-1263-0898","article-title":"Metabolic syndrome pathophysiology and predisposing factors","volume":"42","author":"Bovolini","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"95","article-title":"Importance of Nutrients and Nutrient Metabolism on Human Health","volume":"91","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Yale J. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Agrawal, R., Ansari, M.A., Anand, R.S., Sneha, S., and Mehrotra, R. (2022). Computational Intelligence in Healthcare Applications, Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1007\/s40279-014-0154-1","article-title":"New insights into the interaction of carbohydrate and fat metabolism during exercise","volume":"44","author":"Spriet","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.3390\/bios11010026","article-title":"The Ketogenic Diet: Breath Acetone Sensing Technology","volume":"11","author":"Alkedeh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biosensors"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"406","DOI":"10.1007\/s11920-012-0282-y","article-title":"Epidemiology of Eating Disorders: Incidence, Prevalence and Mortality Rates","volume":"14","author":"Smink","year":"2012","journal-title":"Curr. Psychiatry Rep."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1086","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1528-1167.2010.02543.x","article-title":"Type 1 diabetes and epilepsy: Efficacy and safety of the ketogenic diet","volume":"51","author":"Dressler","year":"2010","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1186\/1476-511X-9-54","article-title":"Comparison of a reduced carbohydrate and reduced fat diet for LDL, HDL, and VLDL subclasses during 9-months of weight maintenance subsequent to weight loss","volume":"9","author":"LeCheminant","year":"2010","journal-title":"Lipids Health Dis."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-7075-8-54","article-title":"Effects of a ketogenic diet on the quality of life in 16 patients with advanced cancer: A pilot trial","volume":"8","author":"Schmidt","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nutr. Metab."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e18604","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0018604","article-title":"Reversal of diabetic nephropathy by a ketogenic diet","volume":"6","author":"Poplawski","year":"2011","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"470","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nurt.2008.05.004","article-title":"Ketone bodies as a therapeutic for Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"5","author":"Henderson","year":"2008","journal-title":"Neurotherapeutics"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9673(01)88495-8","article-title":"High-performance liquid chromatographic determination of acetone in blood and urine in the clinical diagnostic laboratory","volume":"553","author":"Brega","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Chromatogr. A"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"046011","DOI":"10.1088\/1752-7155\/5\/4\/046011","article-title":"Measurement of breath acetone concentrations by selected ion flow tube mass spectrometry in type 2 diabetes","volume":"5","author":"Storer","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Breath Res."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"544","DOI":"10.1002\/osp4.432","article-title":"Urine dipsticks are not accurate for detecting mild ketosis during a severely energy restricted diet","volume":"6","author":"Gibson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Obes. Sci. Pract."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brooke, J., Stiell, M., and Ojo, O. (2016). Evaluation of the accuracy of capillary hydroxybutyrate measurement compared with other measurements in the diagnosis of diabetic ketoacidosis: A systematic review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph13090837"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Amiri, V., Roshan, H., Mirzaei, A., Neri, G., and Ayesh, A.I. (2020). Nanostructured metal oxide-based acetone gas sensors: A review. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20113096"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105428","DOI":"10.1016\/j.microc.2020.105428","article-title":"Colorimetric detection of gaseous acetone based on a reaction between acetone and 4-nitrophenylhydrazine in porous glass","volume":"159","author":"Ito","year":"2020","journal-title":"Microchem. J."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yu, J., Wang, D., Tipparaju, V.V., Jung, W., and Xian, X. (2022). Detection of transdermal biomarkers using gradient-based colorimetric array sensor. Biosens. Bioelectron., 195.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2021.113650"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"450","DOI":"10.1021\/acssensors.0c02025","article-title":"Colorimetric Sensor for Online Accurate Detection of Breath Acetone","volume":"6","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"ACS Sens."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135373","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2024.135373","article-title":"Breath visualization: Colorimetric detection of acetone gas using ion-pairing dyes based on hollow silica particles","volume":"406","author":"Park","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"537","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1109164","article-title":"Monodisperse Double Emulsions Generated from a Microcapillary Device","volume":"308","author":"Utada","year":"2005","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11898","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-11950-2","article-title":"Flow of tunable elastic microcapsules through constrictions","volume":"7","author":"Mehl","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Osorio Perez, O., Nguyen, N.A., Hendricks, A., Victor, S., Mora, S.J., Yu, N., Xian, X., Wang, S., Kulick, D., and Forzani, E. (2024). A Novel Acetone Sensor for Body Fluids. Biosensors, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/bios14010004"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1529","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2011.2174218","article-title":"A microfluidic-colorimetric sensor for continuous monitoring of reactive environmental chemicals","volume":"12","author":"Wang","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Dolan, J. (2025, June 18). Chromatographic Measurements, Part 5: Determining Lod and Loq Based on the Calibration Curves. Separation Science. Available online: https:\/\/www.sepscience.com\/hplc-solutions-126-chromatographic-measurements-part-5-determining-lod-and-loq-based-on-the-calibration-curve."}],"container-title":["Biosensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6374\/15\/7\/429\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:03:58Z","timestamp":1760033038000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6374\/15\/7\/429"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,3]]},"references-count":26,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7]]}},"alternative-id":["bios15070429"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/bios15070429","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-6374"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-6374","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,3]]}}}