{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,20]],"date-time":"2026-08-20T16:07:46Z","timestamp":1787242066405,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":60,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]],"date-time":"2025-10-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1760313600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004410","name":"Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["123E456"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["123E456"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004410","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biosensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study introduces a real-time processing framework for decoding motor imagery EEG signals by integrating manifold learning techniques with shallow classifiers. EEG recordings were obtained from six healthy participants performing five distinct wrist and hand motor imagery tasks. To address the challenges of high dimensionality and inherent nonlinearity in EEG data, five nonlinear dimensionality reduction methods, t-SNE, ISOMAP, LLE, Spectral Embedding, and MDS, were comparatively evaluated. Each method was combined with three shallow classifiers (k-NN, Naive Bayes, and SVM) to investigate performance across binary, ternary, and five-class classification settings. Among all tested configurations, the t-SNE + k-NN pairing achieved the highest accuracies, reaching 99.7% (two-class), 99.3% (three-class), and 89.0% (five-class). ISOMAP and MDS also delivered competitive results, particularly in multi-class scenarios. The presented approach builds upon our previous work involving EEG datasets from individuals with spinal cord injury (SCI), where the same manifold techniques were examined extensively. Comparative findings between healthy and SCI groups reveal consistent advantages of t-SNE and ISOMAP in preserving class separability, despite higher overall accuracies in healthy subjects due to improved signal quality. The proposed pipeline demonstrates low-latency performance, completing signal processing and classification in approximately 150 ms per trial, thereby meeting real-time requirements for responsive BCI applications. These results highlight the potential of nonlinear dimensionality reduction to enhance real-time EEG decoding, offering a low-complexity yet high-accuracy solution applicable to both healthy users and neurologically impaired individuals in neurorehabilitation and assistive technology contexts.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bios15100692","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,15]],"date-time":"2025-10-15T10:12:29Z","timestamp":1760523149000},"page":"692","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Real-Time EEG Decoding of Motor Imagery via Nonlinear Dimensionality Reduction (Manifold Learning) and Shallow Classifiers"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-0451-1045","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hezzal","family":"Kucukselbes","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Izmir University of Economics, Izmir 35330, Turkey"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5059-3201","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ebru","family":"Sayilgan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechatronics Engineering, Izmir University of Economics, Izmir 35330, Turkey"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1007\/s10143-018-1008-3","article-title":"Recent update on basic mechanisms of spinal cord injury","volume":"43","author":"Quadri","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurosurg. 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