{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,16]],"date-time":"2026-10-16T13:00:33Z","timestamp":1792155633070,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":51,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,31]],"date-time":"2025-10-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1761868800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004504","name":"Research Council of Lithuania","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["S-A-UEI-23-7"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["S-A-UEI-23-7"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004504","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biosensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Lameness remains a significant welfare and productivity challenge in dairy farming, often underdiagnosed due to the limitations of conventional detection methods. Unlike most previous approaches to lameness detection that rely on a single-sensor or gait-based measurement, this study integrates four complementary data domains\u2014behavioural, physiological, biochemical, and milk composition parameters\u2014collected from 272 dairy cows during early lactation to enhance diagnostic accuracy and biological interpretability. The main objective of this study was to evaluate and compare the diagnostic classification performance of multiple machine learning (ML) algorithms trained on multimodal data collected at the time of clinical lameness diagnosis during early lactation, and to identify the most influential physiological and biochemical traits contributing to classification accuracy. Specifically, six algorithms\u2014random forest (RF), neural network (NN), Ensemble, support vector machine (SVM), k-nearest neighbors (KNN), and logistic regression (LR)\u2014were assessed. The input dataset integrated physiological parameters (e.g., water intake, body temperature), behavioural indicators (rumination time, activity), blood biochemical biomarkers (non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT)), and milk quality traits (fat, protein, lactose, temperature). Among all models, RF achieved the highest validation accuracy (97.04%), perfect validation specificity (100%), and the highest normalized Matthews correlation coefficient (nMCC = 0.94), as determined through Monte Carlo cross-validation on independent validation sets. Lame cows showed significantly elevated NEFA and body temperatures, reflecting enhanced lipid mobilization and inflammatory stress, alongside reduced water intake, milk protein, and lactose content, indicative of systemic energy imbalance and impaired mammary function. These physiological and biochemical deviations emphasize the multifactorial nature of lameness. Linear models like LR underperformed, likely due to their inability to capture the non-linear and interactive relationships among physiological, biochemical, and milk composition features, which were better represented by tree-based and neural models. Overall, the study demonstrates that combining sensor data with blood biomarkers and milk traits using advanced ML models provides a powerful, objective tool for the clinical classification of lameness, offering practical applications for precision livestock management by supporting early, data-driven decision-making to improve welfare and productivity on dairy farms.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bios15110722","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,3]],"date-time":"2025-11-03T18:21:46Z","timestamp":1762194106000},"page":"722","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Creation of Machine Learning Models Trained on Multimodal Physiological, Behavioural, Blood Biochemical, and Milk Composition Parameters for the Identification of Lameness in Dairy Cows"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-5343-6590","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Karina","family":"D\u017eermeikait\u0117","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Animal Clinic, Veterinary Academy, Lithuania University of Health Sciences, Til\u017e\u0117s Str. 18, LT-47181 Kaunas, Lithuania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-0462-1463","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Justina","family":"Kri\u0161tolaityt\u0117","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Animal Clinic, Veterinary Academy, Lithuania University of Health Sciences, Til\u017e\u0117s Str. 18, LT-47181 Kaunas, Lithuania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Samanta","family":"Grig\u0117","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Animal Clinic, Veterinary Academy, Lithuania University of Health Sciences, Til\u017e\u0117s Str. 18, LT-47181 Kaunas, Lithuania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-4911-087X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Akvil\u0117","family":"Girdauskait\u0117","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Animal Clinic, Veterinary Academy, Lithuania University of Health Sciences, Til\u017e\u0117s Str. 18, LT-47181 Kaunas, Lithuania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-4801-3814","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Greta","family":"\u0160ertvytyt\u0117","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Animal Clinic, Veterinary Academy, Lithuania University of Health Sciences, Til\u017e\u0117s Str. 18, LT-47181 Kaunas, Lithuania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-6514-391X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gabija","family":"Lembovi\u010di\u016bt\u0117","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Animal Clinic, Veterinary Academy, Lithuania University of Health Sciences, Til\u017e\u0117s Str. 18, LT-47181 Kaunas, Lithuania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8572-2616","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mindaugas","family":"Televi\u010dius","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Animal Clinic, Veterinary Academy, Lithuania University of Health Sciences, Til\u017e\u0117s Str. 18, LT-47181 Kaunas, Lithuania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vita","family":"Ri\u0161kevi\u010dien\u0117","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Faculty of Veterinary, Veterinary Academy, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, Til\u017e\u0117s Str. 18, 44307 Kaunas, Lithuania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9993-2224","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ram\u016bnas","family":"Antanaitis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Animal Clinic, Veterinary Academy, Lithuania University of Health Sciences, Til\u017e\u0117s Str. 18, LT-47181 Kaunas, Lithuania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barney, S., Dlay, S., Crowe, A., Kyriazakis, I., and Leach, M. 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