{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T04:36:39Z","timestamp":1787027799326,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":64,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,27]],"date-time":"2025-11-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1764201600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100007156","name":"Innovation and Technology Commission of Hong Kong","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PRP\/003\/24FX"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PRP\/003\/24FX"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100007156","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biosensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Early diagnosis of Alzheimer\u2019s disease (AD) remains challenging due to the extremely low concentration of relevant biomarkers and the limited sensitivity of conventional detection techniques. In this study, we present a carbon nanotube field-effect transistor (CNT-FET) immunosensor for label-free detection of phosphorylated tau at threonine 217 (p-tau217). The device employs a Y2O3\/HfO2 dielectric layer and gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) to improve biofunctionalization, with anti-p-tau217 antibodies immobilized on the CNT channels. In phosphate-buffered saline (PBS), the sensor exhibited a linear response over a concentration range of 3 fM to 30 pM (R2 = 0.973) and achieved a limit of detection (LOD) of 1.66 fM. The device demonstrated high selectivity, with a normalized signal response (NSR) for p-tau217 that was 5\u20136 times higher than for human serum albumin (HSA) and p-tau231, even at 1000-fold higher concentrations of these interferents. The sensor exhibited reproducibility with a relative standard deviation (RSD) of 4.8% (n = 9) and storage stability with only a 10% decrease in signal after 7 days at 4 \u00b0C. Mechanistic analysis indicated that the net positive charge and structural flexibility of the p-tau217 peptide led to a reduction in drain current upon binding, consistent with electrostatic gating effects in p-type CNT-FETs. Current limitations include the absence of standardized p-tau217 reference materials. Future work will focus on validation with clinical samples. This CNT-FET platform enables rapid, minimally invasive detection of p-tau217 and holds strong potential for integration into clinical workflows to facilitate early AD diagnosis.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bios15120784","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,28]],"date-time":"2025-11-28T09:56:02Z","timestamp":1764323762000},"page":"784","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Ultrasensitive and Label-Free Detection of Phosphorylated Tau-217 Protein in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease Using Carbon Nanotube Field-Effect Transistor (CNT-FET) Biosensor"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-1025-6452","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jiao","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong 999077, China"},{"name":"Department of Clinical Laboratory, Hubei Provincial Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Wuhan 430073, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-0404-6794","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Keyu","family":"Yao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong 999077, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7597-8829","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jiahua","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Shenzhen Research Institute, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Shenzhen 518057, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8805-1157","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Duo Wai-Chi","family":"Wong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong 999077, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7446-0569","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"James Chung-Wai","family":"Cheung","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong 999077, China"},{"name":"Research Institute for Smart Aging, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong 999077, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1106","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(07)70291-0","article-title":"Lifetime risk of stroke and dementia: Current concepts, and estimates from the Framingham Study","volume":"6","author":"Seshadri","year":"2007","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30367-6","article-title":"Dementia prevention, intervention, and care: 2020 report of the Lancet Commission","volume":"396","author":"Livingston","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"565","DOI":"10.1038\/s41582-019-0244-7","article-title":"Ageing as a risk factor for neurodegenerative disease","volume":"15","author":"Hou","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"(2019). Global, regional, and national burden of neurological disorders, 1990\u20132016: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016. Lancet Neurol., 18, 459\u2013480."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1186\/s13195-018-0459-7","article-title":"Prevalence and risk of progression of preclinical Alzheimer\u2019s disease stages: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"11","author":"Parnetti","year":"2019","journal-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mcna.2018.10.009","article-title":"The Alzheimer\u2019s Disease Clinical Spectrum: Diagnosis and Management","volume":"103","author":"Atri","year":"2019","journal-title":"Med. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"981","DOI":"10.2967\/jnumed.121.262239","article-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s disease\u2014Standard of diagnosis, treatment, care, and prevention","volume":"63","author":"Teipel","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Nucl. Med."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2052","DOI":"10.1039\/C9MD00337A","article-title":"Current and emerging therapeutic targets of alzheimer\u2019s disease for the design of multi-target directed ligands","volume":"10","author":"Blaikie","year":"2019","journal-title":"Medchemcomm"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1106","DOI":"10.2174\/1570159X18666200528142429","article-title":"Recent Advancements in Pathogenesis, Diagnostics and Treatment of Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"18","author":"Khan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Neuropharmacol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1648","DOI":"10.1111\/jocn.17625","article-title":"The Effects of Exergaming on the Depressive Symptoms of People With Dementia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"34","author":"Cheung","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Clin. Nurs."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cheng, E.S.W., Cheung, D.S.K., Chiu, A.T.S., Cheung, J.C.W., and Wong, D.W.C. (Int. J. Hum.\u2013Comput. Interact., 2025). A Drum-Based Serious Game for Physical and Cognitive Training in Older Adults: Development and Mixed Methods Usability Study, Int. J. Hum.\u2013Comput. Interact., in press.","DOI":"10.1080\/10447318.2025.2558017"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1276","DOI":"10.1038\/s41588-021-00921-z","article-title":"A genome-wide association study with 1,126,563 individuals identifies new risk loci for Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"53","author":"Wightman","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Genet."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2669","DOI":"10.1002\/alz.12756","article-title":"The Alzheimer\u2019s Association appropriate use recommendations for blood biomarkers in Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"18","author":"Hansson","year":"2022","journal-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s Dement."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2053","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-023-12148-5","article-title":"Head-to-head study of diagnostic accuracy of plasma and cerebrospinal fluid p-tau217 versus p-tau181 and p-tau231 in a memory clinic cohort","volume":"271","author":"Mendes","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e14408","DOI":"10.15252\/emmm.202114408","article-title":"Blood-based biomarkers for Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"14","author":"Leuzy","year":"2021","journal-title":"EMBO Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dhauria, M., Mondal, R., Deb, S., Shome, G., Chowdhury, D., Sarkar, S., and Benito-Le\u00f3n, J. (2024). Blood-Based Biomarkers in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease: Advancing Non-Invasive Diagnostics and Prognostics. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202409.1701.v1"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20200861","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20200861","article-title":"Blood plasma phosphorylated-tau isoforms track CNS change in Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"217","author":"Horie","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"400","DOI":"10.1038\/s41582-022-00665-2","article-title":"Blood phospho-tau in Alzheimer disease: Analysis, interpretation, and clinical utility","volume":"18","author":"Karikari","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1683","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-15436-0","article-title":"Cerebrospinal fluid p-tau217 performs better than p-tau181 as a biomarker of Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"11","author":"Janelidze","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"398","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-020-0781-z","article-title":"A soluble phosphorylated tau signature links tau, amyloid and the evolution of stages of dominantly inherited Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"26","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"1797","article-title":"Plasma p-tau231 and p-tau217 as state markers of amyloid-\u03b2 pathology in preclinical Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"28","author":"Ashton","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1699","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.10.029","article-title":"Tau PTM Profiles Identify Patient Heterogeneity and Stages of Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"183","author":"Wesseling","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-025-12897-5","article-title":"Accuracy and clinical applicability of plasma tau 181 and 217 for Alzheimer\u2019s disease diagnosis in a memory clinic cohort","volume":"272","author":"Sarto","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12921","DOI":"10.15252\/emmm.202012921","article-title":"Novel tau biomarkers phosphorylated at T181, T217 or T231 rise in the initial stages of the preclinical Alzheimer\u2019s continuum when only subtle changes in A\u03b2 pathology are detected","volume":"12","author":"Karikari","year":"2020","journal-title":"EMBO Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"726","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(22)00168-5","article-title":"Tau biomarkers in Alzheimer\u2019s disease: Towards implementation in clinical practice and trials","volume":"21","author":"Ossenkoppele","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2555","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-022-02074-w","article-title":"Differential roles of A\u03b242\/40, p-tau231 and p-tau217 for Alzheimer\u2019s trial selection and disease monitoring","volume":"28","author":"Ashton","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1181","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp-2020-323826","article-title":"Comparison between plasma and cerebrospinal fluid biomarkers for the early diagnosis and association with survival in prion disease","volume":"91","author":"Baiardi","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e347","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000200615","article-title":"Association of Plasma Biomarker Levels With Their CSF Concentration and the Number and Severity of Concussions in Professional Athletes","volume":"99","author":"Shahim","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1186\/s13024-023-00605-8","article-title":"Plasma phospho-tau in Alzheimer\u2019s disease: Towards diagnostic and therapeutic trial applications","volume":"18","author":"Kac","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mol. Neurodegener."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4967","DOI":"10.1002\/alz.13026","article-title":"Equivalence of plasma p-tau217 with cerebrospinal fluid in the diagnosis of Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"19","author":"Therriault","year":"2023","journal-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s Dement."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-2011-101977","article-title":"Meta-analysis of plasma amyloid-\u03b2 levels in Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"26","author":"Song","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Alzheimer\u2019s Dis."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-019-13901-z","article-title":"Clinically accurate diagnosis of Alzheimer\u2019s disease via multiplexed sensing of core biomarkers in human plasma","volume":"11","author":"Kim","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e14397","DOI":"10.1002\/alz.14397","article-title":"Plasma p-tau immunoassays in clinical research for Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"21","author":"Teunissen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s Dement."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4176","DOI":"10.1021\/acschemneuro.3c00568","article-title":"Development of a P-tau217 Electrochemiluminescent Immunosensor Reinforced with Au-Cu Nanoparticles for Alzheimer\u2019s Disease Precaution","volume":"14","author":"Kong","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACS Chem. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Le, P.G., Choi, S.H., and Cho, S. (2023). Alzheimer\u2019s Disease Biomarker Detection Using Field Effect Transistor-Based Biosensor. Biosensors, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/bios13110987"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Park, D., Kim, J., Kim, H.J., Lee, D., Lee, D., Yoon, D., and Hwang, K. (2020). Multiplexed femtomolar detection of Alzheimer\u2019s disease biomarkers in biofluids using a reduced graphene oxide field-effect transistor. Biosens. Bioelectron., 167.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2020.112505"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ciou, S.-H., Hsieh, A.-H., Lin, Y.-X., Sei, J.-L., Govindasamy, M., Kuo, C.-F., and Huang, C.-H. (2023). Sensitive label-free detection of the biomarker phosphorylated tau-217 protein in Alzheimer\u2019s disease using a graphene-based solution-gated field effect transistor. Biosens. Bioelectron., 228.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2023.115174"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e14458","DOI":"10.1002\/alz.14458","article-title":"Diagnostic accuracy of phosphorylated tau217 in detecting Alzheimer\u2019s disease pathology among cognitively impaired and unimpaired: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"21","author":"Khalafi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s Dement."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2013.07.004","article-title":"A carbon nanotube metal semiconductor field effect transistor-based biosensor for detection of amyloid-beta in human serum","volume":"50","author":"Oh","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7897","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.nanolett.1c00837","article-title":"Ultrasensitive Detection of SARS-CoV-2 Antibody by Graphene Field-Effect Transistors","volume":"21","author":"Kang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2705","DOI":"10.1021\/acssensors.4c00322","article-title":"Sensitivity-Enhancing Strategies of Graphene Field-Effect Transistor Biosensors for Biomarker Detection","volume":"9","author":"Zhao","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACS Sens."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Q., Zhao, Z.-A., Yao, K.-Y., Cheng, Y.-L., Wong, D.S., Wong, D.W., and Cheung, J.C. (2025). The Versatility of Biological Field-Effect Transistor-Based Biosensors (BioFETs) in Point-of-Care Diagnostics: Applications and Future Directions for Peritoneal Dialysis Monitoring. Biosensors, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/bios15030193"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7448","DOI":"10.1021\/nn404544e","article-title":"Carbon Nanotubes for the Label-Free Detection of Biomarkers","volume":"7","author":"Michael","year":"2013","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"595","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-019-1493-8","article-title":"Modern microprocessor built from complementary carbon nanotube transistors","volume":"572","author":"Hills","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2075","DOI":"10.1021\/acssensors.2c00967","article-title":"Aptamer-Functionalized Carbon Nanotube Field-Effect Transistor Biosensors for Alzheimer\u2019s Disease Serum Biomarker Detection","volume":"7","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"ACS Sens."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20864","DOI":"10.1039\/D4NR03481C","article-title":"Overcoming Debye screening effect in field-effect transistors for enhanced biomarker detection sensitivity","volume":"16","author":"Meng","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nanoscale"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69509","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.2987204","article-title":"A Review of Carbon Nanotubes Field Effect-Based Biosensors","volume":"8","author":"Alabsi","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5719","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.analchem.2c05751","article-title":"Nanosensor-Driven Detection of Neuron-Derived Exosomal A\u03b2(42) with Graphene Electrolyte-Gated Transistor for Alzheimer\u2019s Disease Diagnosis","volume":"95","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27299","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.3c02700","article-title":"Carbon Nanotube Field-Effect Transistor Biosensor with an Enlarged Gate Area for Ultra-Sensitive Detection of a Lung Cancer Biomarker","volume":"15","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yao, X., Zhang, Y., Jin, W., Hu, Y., and Cui, Y. (2021). Carbon Nanotube Field-Effect Transistor-Based Chemical and Biological Sensors. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21030995"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15501","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.analchem.1c03573","article-title":"Carbon Nanotube Field-Effect Transistor Biosensor for Ultrasensitive and Label-Free Detection of Breast Cancer Exosomal miRNA21","volume":"93","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8866","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.0c03523","article-title":"Wafer-Scale Uniform Carbon Nanotube Transistors for Ultrasensitive and Label-Free Detection of Disease Biomarkers","volume":"14","author":"Liang","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2208198","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.202208198","article-title":"Amplification-Free Detection of SARS-CoV-2 Down to Single Virus Level by Portable Carbon Nanotube Biosensors","volume":"19","author":"Liang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Small"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2012","DOI":"10.1021\/acssensors.2c00801","article-title":"Electrochemiluminescence Biosensor for Hyaluronidase Based on the Adjustable Electrostatic Interaction between the Surface-Charge-Controllable Nanoparticles and Negatively Charged Electrode","volume":"7","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"ACS Sens."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11550","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.langmuir.9b01110","article-title":"Theory of Surface Forces in Multivalent Electrolytes","volume":"35","author":"Misra","year":"2019","journal-title":"Langmuir"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2210492119","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2210492119","article-title":"Mapping the per-residue surface electrostatic potential of CAPRIN1 along its phase-separation trajectory","volume":"119","author":"Toyama","year":"2022","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Forsstr\u00f6m, B., Axn\u00e4s, B.B., Rockberg, J., Danielsson, H., Bohlin, A., and Uhlen, M. (2015). Dissecting antibodies with regards to linear and conformational epitopes. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0121673"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2396","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jcim.1c00167","article-title":"Analysis of Binding Modes of Antigen-Antibody Complexes by Molecular Mechanics Calculation","volume":"61","author":"Qu","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Chem. Inf. Model."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"724","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2020.03.159","article-title":"Identification of the linear immunodominant epitopes in the \u03b2 subunit of \u03b2-conglycinin and preparation of epitope antibodies","volume":"154","author":"Bu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"254","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fct.2013.02.014","article-title":"Prediction and characterization of the linear IgE epitopes for the major soybean allergen \u03b2-conglycinin using immunoinformatics tools","volume":"56","author":"Sun","year":"2013","journal-title":"Food Chem. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csbj.2023.11.056","article-title":"Structural trends in antibody-antigen binding interfaces: A computational analysis of 1833 experimentally determined 3D structures","volume":"23","author":"Madsen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Comput. Struct. Biotechnol. J."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2322533","DOI":"10.1080\/19420862.2024.2322533","article-title":"Do antibody CDR loops change conformation upon binding?","volume":"16","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"mAbs"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1039\/D1CS00127B","article-title":"Revisiting the grammar of Tau aggregation and pathology formation: How new insights from brain pathology are shaping how we study and target Tauopathies","volume":"51","author":"Limorenko","year":"2022","journal-title":"Chem. Soc. Rev."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1093\/protein\/gzz012","article-title":"Adaption of human antibody \u03bb and \u03ba light chain architectures to CDR repertoires","volume":"32","author":"Bauer","year":"2019","journal-title":"Protein Eng. Des. Sel."}],"container-title":["Biosensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6374\/15\/12\/784\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,28]],"date-time":"2025-11-28T10:32:16Z","timestamp":1764325936000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6374\/15\/12\/784"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,27]]},"references-count":64,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["bios15120784"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/bios15120784","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-6374"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-6374","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,27]]}}}