{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,8]],"date-time":"2026-07-08T22:38:31Z","timestamp":1783550311577,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":254,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,12]],"date-time":"2026-02-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1770854400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biosensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Avian influenza (AI), particularly highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI), represents a serious and growing threat to global poultry production, international trade, and human health security. Control of AI is complicated by the high evolutionary rate of influenza A viruses, which drives antigenic diversity and ongoing emergence of novel strains. Effective surveillance and disease management therefore depend on timely and accurate diagnostics. While conventional methods\u2014including virus isolation, reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR), and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs)\u2014remain effective and widely used, they are limited by long turnaround times, the need for specialized equipment, and reliance on highly trained personnel. In addition, strict state and federal regulatory requirements restrict testing to a limited number of authorized laboratories. Although these regulations are essential for maintaining diagnostic accuracy and quality assurance, they place substantial strain on laboratory capacity during outbreaks and delay actionable results. The need for rapid, on-site decision making has driven interest in alternative diagnostic approaches, including biosensor technologies. A major limitation of current diagnostic strategies is the lack of robust DIVA (Differentiating Infected from Vaccinated Animals) capability. In countries such as the United States, where poultry vaccination against AI is not routinely practiced, the absence of DIVA-compatible diagnostics has hindered adoption of vaccination as a disease management tool, as seropositive birds and products face significant trade restrictions. Biosensor platforms capable of enabling DIVA strategies offer a potential pathway to support vaccination while preserving surveillance integrity. This review examines the current landscape of AI and HPAI diagnostics, emphasizing the limitations of traditional approaches and the opportunities presented by biosensor platforms. We evaluate electrochemical, optical, piezoelectric, and nucleic-acid-based biosensors, with particular attention to biorecognition strategies, performance metrics, field deployability, and applications supporting subtype discrimination, DIVA implementation, and One Health surveillance.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bios16020118","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,12]],"date-time":"2026-02-12T09:48:34Z","timestamp":1770889714000},"page":"118","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Biosensor Technologies for Avian Influenza Detection: A New Frontier in Rapid Diagnostics for HPAI"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-7872-484X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jacquline","family":"Risalvato","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomedical and Diagnostic Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3063-8705","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alaa H.","family":"Sewid","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Natural Resources, The University of Tennessee Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-0535-969X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Durina Z.","family":"Dalrymple","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9519-1174","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shigetoshi","family":"Eda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Natural Resources, The University of Tennessee Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5143-9425","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"J. Jayne","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1592-3759","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Richard W.","family":"Gerhold","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomedical and Diagnostic Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Suarez, D.L. (2008). Influenza a Virus. Avian Influenza, John Wiley & Sons.","DOI":"10.1002\/9780813818634.ch1"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Maclachlan, N., Dubovi, E.J., Barthold, S.W., Swayne, D., and Winton, J.R. (2016). Fenner\u2019s Veterinary Virology, Elsevier. [5th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coviro.2020.08.004","article-title":"Influenza D virus","volume":"44","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Virol."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Shaw, M., and Palese, P. (2007). Orthomyxoviridae: The viruses and their replication. Fields Virology, Lippencott Williams and Wilkins."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.1093\/emboj\/17.1.288","article-title":"The influenza virus NEP (NS2 protein) mediates the nuclear export of viral ribonucleoproteins","volume":"17","author":"Talon","year":"1998","journal-title":"EMBO J."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cimid.2008.01.004","article-title":"The history of avian influenza","volume":"32","author":"Lupiani","year":"2009","journal-title":"Comp. Immunol. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e522","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(24)00234-2","article-title":"Zoonotic infections by avian influenza virus: Changing global epidemiology, investigation, and control","volume":"24","author":"Kang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1016\/0042-6822(88)90260-7","article-title":"Is the gene pool of influenza viruses in shorebirds and gulls different from that in wild ducks?","volume":"163","author":"Kawaoka","year":"1988","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.2307\/1589250","article-title":"Type-A influenza viruses isolated from wild free-flying ducks in California","volume":"18","author":"Slemons","year":"1974","journal-title":"Avian Dis."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1950","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2312.170246","article-title":"Spread of Canine Influenza A(H3N2) Virus, United States","volume":"23","author":"Voorhees","year":"2017","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"377","article-title":"Influenza A virus reassortment","volume":"Volume 385","author":"Steel","year":"2014","journal-title":"Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2706","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.05546-11","article-title":"The multibasic cleavage site of the hemagglutinin of highly pathogenic A\/Vietnam\/1203\/2004 (H5N1) avian influenza virus acts as a virulence factor in a host-specific manner in mammals","volume":"86","author":"Suguitan","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11825","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.74.24.11825-11831.2000","article-title":"Sialic acid species as a determinant of the host range of influenza A viruses","volume":"74","author":"Suzuki","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Pan American Health Organization\/World Health Organization (2025). Epidemiological Update: Avian Influenza A(H5N1) in the Americas Region, 4 March 2025, PAHO\/WHO."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) (2022). Global Situation of HPAI, WOAH."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"856","DOI":"10.3382\/ps.2008-00338","article-title":"Are live bird markets reservoirs of avian influenza?","volume":"88","author":"Cardona","year":"2009","journal-title":"Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"818","DOI":"10.1637\/10183-041012-Review.1","article-title":"Impact of vaccines and vaccination on global control of avian influenza","volume":"56","author":"Swayne","year":"2012","journal-title":"Avian Dis."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Mitchell, J.L., Thompson, J.M., and Malone, T. (2025). The Economic Impact of HPAI on U.S. Egg Consumers: Estimating a $1.41 Billion Loss in Consumer Surplus, University of Arkansas."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104102","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psj.2024.104102","article-title":"The effect of avian influenza outbreaks on retail price premiums in the United States poultry market","volume":"103","author":"Zamani","year":"2024","journal-title":"Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1888","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1304459","article-title":"Human infection with a novel avian-origin influenza A (H7N9) virus","volume":"368","author":"Gao","year":"2013","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1534","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1213362","article-title":"Airborne transmission of influenza A\/H5N1 virus between ferrets","volume":"336","author":"Herfst","year":"2012","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100017","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.REV120.013309","article-title":"Adaptation of influenza viruses to human airway receptors","volume":"296","author":"Thompson","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"158","article-title":"The pig as a mixing vessel for influenza viruses: Human and veterinary implications","volume":"3","author":"Ma","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Mol. Genet. Med."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2380421","DOI":"10.1080\/22221751.2024.2380421","article-title":"Genomic characterization of highly pathogenic avian influenza A H5N1 virus newly emerged in dairy cattle","volume":"13","author":"Hu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Emerg. Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"833","DOI":"10.3201\/eid3104.241615","article-title":"Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza A(H5N1) Virus Stability in Irradiated Raw Milk and Wastewater and on Surfaces, United States","volume":"31","author":"Kaiser","year":"2025","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e02542-24","DOI":"10.1128\/mbio.02542-24","article-title":"Avian influenza A (H5N1) virus in dairy cattle: Origin, evolution, and cross-species transmission","volume":"15","author":"Mostafa","year":"2024","journal-title":"mBio"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2006.12.021","article-title":"Highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 virus in cats and other carnivores","volume":"122","author":"Thiry","year":"2007","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, and World Organisation for Animal Health (2025). Global Strategy for the Prevention and Control of High Pathogenicity Avian Influenza (2024\u20132033)\u2014Achieving Sustainable, Resilient Poultry Production Systems, FAO\/World Organisation for Animal Health."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Azeem, S., and Yoon, K.J. (2025). Diagnostic Assays for Avian Influenza Virus Surveillance and Monitoring in Poultry. Viruses, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/v17020228"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"875","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1406.070839","article-title":"Major issues and challenges of influenza pandemic preparedness in developing countries","volume":"14","author":"Oshitani","year":"2008","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-0716-0346-8_11","article-title":"Avian Influenza Virus Detection and Quantitation by Real-Time RT-PCR","volume":"2123","author":"Spackman","year":"2020","journal-title":"Methods Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Astill, J., Dara, R.A., Fraser, E.D.G., and Sharif, S. (2018). Detecting and Predicting Emerging Disease in Poultry with the Implementation of New Technologies and Big Data: A Focus on Avian Influenza Virus. Front. Vet. Sci., 5.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2018.00263"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14483","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-14536-0","article-title":"Reactivity and sensitivity of commercially available influenza rapid diagnostic tests in Japan","volume":"7","author":"Yamayoshi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vijaykrishna, D., Bahl, J., Riley, S., Duan, L., Zhang, J.X., Chen, H., Peiris, J.S., Smith, G.J., and Guan, Y. (2008). Evolutionary dynamics and emergence of panzootic H5N1 influenza viruses. PLoS Pathog., 4.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1000161"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0080722","DOI":"10.1128\/spectrum.00807-22","article-title":"Emergence, Evolution, and Biological Characteristics of H10N4 and H10N8 Avian Influenza Viruses in Migratory Wild Birds Detected in Eastern China in 2020","volume":"10","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Microbiol. Spectr."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Raza, M.A., Ashraf, M.A., Amjad, M.N., Din, G.U., Shen, B., and Hu, Y. (2025). The peculiar characteristics and advancement in diagnostic methodologies of influenza A virus. Front. Microbiol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2024.1435384"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"430","DOI":"10.1006\/meth.2001.1265","article-title":"Real-time multiplex PCR assays","volume":"25","author":"Wittwer","year":"2001","journal-title":"Methods"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2016.05.007","article-title":"Recent developments in the diagnosis of avian influenza","volume":"215","author":"Okamatsu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"998","DOI":"10.1080\/22221751.2020.1756698","article-title":"Development of a reverse transcription-loop-mediated isothermal amplification as a rapid early-detection method for novel SARS-CoV-2","volume":"9","author":"Baek","year":"2020","journal-title":"Emerg. Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcv.2013.06.006","article-title":"Multiplex loop-mediated isothermal amplification (M-LAMP) assay for the detection of influenza A\/H1, A\/H3 and influenza B can provide a specimen-to-result diagnosis in 40 min with single genome copy sensitivity","volume":"58","author":"Mahony","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Clin. Virol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7137","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-11320-7","article-title":"Investigation and validation of labelling loop mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) products with different nucleotide modifications for various downstream analysis","volume":"12","author":"Warmt","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Goraichuk, I.V., Risalvato, J., Pantin-Jackwood, M., and Suarez, D.L. (2024). Improved influenza A whole-genome sequencing protocol. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2024.1497278"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Spackman, E., Suarez, D.L., and Senne, D.A. (2008). Avian Influenza Diagnostics and Surveillance Methods. Avian Influenza, John Wiley & Sons.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-59745-279-3"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-0716-0346-8_13","article-title":"Agar Gel Immunodiffusion Assay to Detect Antibodies to Type A Influenza Virus","volume":"2123","author":"Jenson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Methods Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1647\/1082-6742(2003)017[0109:BR]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Diseases of Poultry. 11th ed","volume":"17","author":"Carpenter","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Avian Med. Surg."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"TPALMER, and USDA NVSL (2021). Agar Gel Immunodiffusion Test to Detect Antibodies to Type A Influenza Virus, NVSL. NVSL-SOP-0045.03."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-0716-0346-8_14","article-title":"Detection of Influenza A Antibodies in Avian Samples by ELISA","volume":"2123","author":"Spackman","year":"2020","journal-title":"Methods Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"326","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.63.2.326","article-title":"Independent variation in nature of hemagglutinin and neuraminidase antigens of influenza virus: Distinctiveness of hemagglutinin antigen of Hong Kong-68 virus","volume":"63","author":"Schulman","year":"1969","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1128\/CVI.13.3.395-402.2006","article-title":"Development and application of reference antisera against 15 hemagglutinin subtypes of influenza virus by DNA vaccination of chickens","volume":"13","author":"Lee","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin. Vaccine Immunol."},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"35","article-title":"Avian influenza virus isolation and propagation in chicken eggs","volume":"436","author":"Woolcock","year":"2008","journal-title":"Methods Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.7589\/2011-11-322","article-title":"Infectivity of Avian Influenza Virus-Positive Field Samples for Mallards: What Do Our Diagnostic Results Mean?","volume":"49","author":"Brown","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Wildl. Dis."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"OIE\/WOAH (2024). Manual of Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines for Terrestrial Animals: Avian Influenza, WOAH."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1596","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.44.4.1596-1597.2006","article-title":"Performance of rapid tests for detection of avian influenza A virus types H5N1 and H9N2","volume":"44","author":"Fedorko","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1319","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1209.060430","article-title":"Control of avian influenza in poultry","volume":"12","author":"Capua","year":"2006","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1038\/s41538-021-00094-3","article-title":"Real-time, selective, and low-cost detection of trace level SARS-CoV-2 spike-protein for cold-chain food quarantine","volume":"5","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"npj Sci. Food"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1002\/celc.201600831","article-title":"Unamplified RNA Sensor for On-Site Screening of Zika Virus Disease in a Limited Resource Setting","volume":"4","author":"Cheng","year":"2017","journal-title":"ChemElectroChem"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11379","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.analchem.0c05415","article-title":"A Sensitive and Specific Genomic RNA Sensor for Point-of-Care Screening of Zika Virus from Serum","volume":"93","author":"Cheng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1617","DOI":"10.1002\/elps.201700043","article-title":"Capacitive DNA sensor for rapid and sensitive detection of whole genome human herpesvirus-1 dsDNA in serum","volume":"38","author":"Cheng","year":"2017","journal-title":"Electrophoresis"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2812","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.analchem.1c04296","article-title":"Capacitive Aptasensor Coupled with Microfluidic Enrichment for Real-Time Detection of Trace SARS-CoV-2 Nucleocapsid Protein","volume":"94","author":"Qi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105463","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psj.2025.105463","article-title":"Portable lab-on-a-chip platform enabling multiplex recombinant enzyme polymerase amplification detection of H5\/H7\/H10 avian influenza virus subtypes","volume":"104","author":"Liang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u0160tukovnik, Z., and Bren, U. (2022). Recent Developments in Electrochemical-Impedimetric Biosensors for Virus Detection. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms232415922"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1649","DOI":"10.1007\/s00604-017-2140-4","article-title":"A PCR-free point-of-care capacitive immunoassay for influenza A virus","volume":"184","author":"Cheng","year":"2017","journal-title":"Microchim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1021\/cr068107d","article-title":"Surface Plasmon Resonance Sensors for Detection of Chemical and Biological Species","volume":"108","author":"Homola","year":"2008","journal-title":"Chem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12506","DOI":"10.3390\/s120912506","article-title":"A SPR Aptasensor for Detection of Avian Influenza Virus H5N1","volume":"12","author":"Bai","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"818","DOI":"10.1038\/346818a0","article-title":"In vitro selection of RNA molecules that bind specific ligands","volume":"346","author":"Ellington","year":"1990","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5807","DOI":"10.1111\/jcmm.13925","article-title":"The applications of CRISPR\/Cas system in molecular detection","volume":"22","author":"Zhou","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Cell. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.12688\/gatesopenres.13171.1","article-title":"Are current avian influenza vaccines a solution for smallholder poultry farmers?","volume":"4","author":"Guyonnet","year":"2020","journal-title":"Gates Open Res."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2012.10.038","article-title":"Hydrogel based QCM aptasensor for detection of avian influenzavirus","volume":"42","author":"Wang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4146","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2011.04.010","article-title":"A nanobeads amplified QCM immunosensor for the detection of avian influenza virus H5N1","volume":"26","author":"Li","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2190","DOI":"10.1039\/c3tb00027c","article-title":"Influenza A virus molecularly imprinted polymers and their application in virus sub-type classification","volume":"1","author":"Wangchareansak","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem. B"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2014.03.050","article-title":"Universal biosensor for detection of influenza virus","volume":"59","author":"Nidzworski","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3381","DOI":"10.1021\/acssensors.4c03087","article-title":"Capacitive Biosensor for Rapid Detection of Avian (H5N1) Influenza and E. coli in Aerosols","volume":"10","author":"Kumar","year":"2025","journal-title":"ACS Sens."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2016.06.064","article-title":"Highly sensitive sandwich-type SPR based detection of whole H5Nx viruses using a pair of aptamers","volume":"86","author":"Nguyen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110341","DOI":"10.1016\/j.colsurfb.2019.06.070","article-title":"Label-free localized surface plasmon resonance biosensor composed of multi-functional DNA 3 way junction on hollow Au spike-like nanoparticles (HAuSN) for avian influenza virus detection","volume":"182","author":"Lee","year":"2019","journal-title":"Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114407","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2022.114407","article-title":"Cell-mimetic biosensors to detect avian influenza virus via viral fusion","volume":"212","author":"Park","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3405","DOI":"10.1039\/c2an35371g","article-title":"Bacteriophage based probes for pathogen detection","volume":"137","author":"Singh","year":"2012","journal-title":"Analyst"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ab.2015.03.011","article-title":"Applications of commercial biosensors in clinical, food, environmental, and biothreat\/biowarfare analyses","volume":"478","year":"2015","journal-title":"Anal. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100467","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmt.2019.100467","article-title":"Nano-carbon based sensors for bacterial detection and discrimination in clinical diagnosis: A junction between material science and biology","volume":"18","author":"Sharma","year":"2020","journal-title":"Appl. Mater. Today"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3231","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.bioconjchem.8b00592","article-title":"Guide to selecting a biorecognition element for biosensors","volume":"29","author":"Morales","year":"2018","journal-title":"Bioconjug. Chem."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rasooly, A., Herold, K.E., and Herold, K.E. (2009). Biosensors and Biodetection, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-60327-567-5"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jab.2013.02.001","article-title":"Advances in biosensors: Principle, architecture and applications","volume":"12","author":"Perumal","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Appl. Biomed."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zourob, M., Elwary, S., and Khademhosseini, A. (2010). Recognition Receptors in Biosensors, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4419-0919-0"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1269","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.200500626","article-title":"Artificial antibodies for bioanalyte detection\u2014Sensing viruses and proteins","volume":"16","author":"Hayden","year":"2006","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mavrikou, S., Moschopoulou, G., Tsekouras, V., and Kintzios, S. (2020). Development of a portable, ultra-rapid and ultra-sensitive cell-based biosensor for the direct detection of the SARS-CoV-2 S1 spike protein antigen. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20113121"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"320","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2009.07.012","article-title":"Detection of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) coronavirus nucleocapsid protein in human serum using a localized surface plasmon coupled fluorescence fiber-optic biosensor","volume":"25","author":"Huang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2629","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.42.6.2629-2635.2004","article-title":"Sensitive and specific monoclonal antibody-based capture enzyme immunoassay for detection of nucleocapsid antigen in sera from patients with severe acute respiratory syndrome","volume":"42","author":"Che","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112455","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2020.112455","article-title":"Detection of COVID-19: A review of the current literature and future perspectives","volume":"166","author":"Ji","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2016.08.087","article-title":"A virus resonance light scattering sensor based on mussel-inspired molecularly imprinted polymers for high sensitive and high selective detection of Hepatitis A Virus","volume":"87","author":"Yang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3536","DOI":"10.1021\/ac035367b","article-title":"Piezoelectric immunosensor for SARS-associated coronavirus in sputum","volume":"76","author":"Zuo","year":"2004","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14017","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0406159101","article-title":"Electrical detection of single viruses","volume":"101","author":"Patolsky","year":"2004","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mu\u00f1oz-Dorado, J., Marcos-Torres, F.J., Garc\u00eda-Bravo, E., Moraleda-Mu\u00f1oz, A., and P\u00e9rez, J. (2016). Myxobacteria: Moving, killing, feeding, and surviving together. Front. Microbiol., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2016.00781"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1806739","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201806739","article-title":"Disposable sensors in diagnostics, food, and environmental monitoring","volume":"31","author":"Dincer","year":"2019","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113574","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ab.2020.113574","article-title":"Application of aptamers as molecular recognition elements in lateral flow assays","volume":"593","author":"Reid","year":"2020","journal-title":"Anal. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1007\/s13317-017-0097-2","article-title":"Chemiluminescent immunoassay technology: What does it change in autoantibody detection?","volume":"8","author":"Cinquanta","year":"2017","journal-title":"Autoimmun. Highlights"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"742","DOI":"10.1016\/0076-6879(86)18114-6","article-title":"ELISA techniques","volume":"Volume 118","author":"Clark","year":"1986","journal-title":"Methods in Enzymology"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1042\/EBC20150012","article-title":"Lateral flow assays","volume":"60","author":"Koczula","year":"2016","journal-title":"Essays Biochem."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dzi\u0105bowska, K., Czaczyk, E., and Nidzworski, D. (2018). Detection methods of human and animal influenza virus\u2014Current trends. Biosensors, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/bios8040094"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e120","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMp2025631","article-title":"Rethinking COVID-19 test sensitivity\u2014A strategy for containment","volume":"383","author":"Mina","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wong, R., and Tse, H. (2008). Lateral Flow Immunoassay, Springer Science & Business Media.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-59745-240-3"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100924","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eclinm.2021.100924","article-title":"Lateral Flow Oversight Team. COVID-19: Rapid antigen detection for SARS-CoV-2 by lateral flow assay: A national systematic evaluation of sensitivity and specificity for mass-testing","volume":"36","author":"Peto","year":"2021","journal-title":"eClinicalMedicine"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"937","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.37.4.937-943.1999","article-title":"Detection of antibody to avian influenza A (H5N1) virus in human serum by using a combination of serologic assays","volume":"37","author":"Rowe","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Prabakaran, M., Ho, H.-T., Prabhu, N., Velumani, S., Szyporta, M., He, F., Chan, K.-P., Chen, L.-M., Matsuoka, Y., and Donis, R.O. (2009). Development of epitope-blocking ELISA for universal detection of antibodies to human H5N1 influenza viruses. PLoS ONE, 4.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0004566"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2076","DOI":"10.1128\/jcm.35.8.2076-2082.1997","article-title":"Multiplex reverse transcription-PCR for surveillance of influenza A and B viruses in England and Wales in 1995 and 1996","volume":"35","author":"Ellis","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jviromet.2008.08.013","article-title":"Evaluation of a rapid test for detection of H5N1 avian influenza virus","volume":"154","author":"Chen","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Virol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1080\/03079458908418618","article-title":"Detection of influenza A type-specific antibodies in chicken and turkey sera by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay","volume":"18","author":"Adair","year":"1989","journal-title":"Avian Pathol."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.2307\/1590842","article-title":"A broad-spectrum avian influenza subtype antigen for indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay","volume":"33","author":"Fatunmbi","year":"1989","journal-title":"Avian Dis."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1016\/0165-2427(85)90061-3","article-title":"An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay method for the simultaneous measurement of antibody titer to multiple viral, bacterial or protein antigens","volume":"9","author":"Snyder","year":"1985","journal-title":"Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol."},{"key":"ref_108","first-page":"11.10","article-title":"Production of monoclonal antibody supernatant and ascites fluid","volume":"83","author":"Yokoyama","year":"2008","journal-title":"Curr. Protoc. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1798","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02256-07","article-title":"Antigenic profile of avian H5N1 viruses in Asia from 2002 to 2007","volume":"82","author":"Wu","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"847","DOI":"10.1128\/jcm.21.5.847-849.1985","article-title":"Development of subtype-specific and heterosubtypic antibodies to the influenza A virus hemagglutinin after primary infection in children","volume":"21","author":"Burlington","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1096-9071(199805)55:1<82::AID-JMV13>3.0.CO;2-1","article-title":"Altered antibody response to influenza H1N1 vaccine in healthy elderly people as determined by HI, ELISA, and neutralization assay","volume":"55","author":"Remarque","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1637\/7473-111605R.1","article-title":"Development and evaluation of a DAS-ELISA for rapid detection of avian influenza viruses","volume":"50","author":"Zhang","year":"2006","journal-title":"Avian Dis."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"726","DOI":"10.1128\/CVI.00465-08","article-title":"Rapid detection of H5N1 subtype influenza viruses by antigen capture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay using H5-and N1-specific monoclonal antibodies","volume":"16","author":"Ho","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Vaccine Immunol."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"He, F., Soejoedono, R.D., Murtini, S., Goutama, M., and Kwang, J. (2010). Complementary monoclonal antibody-based dot ELISA for universal detection of H5 avian influenza virus. BMC Microbiol., 10.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2180-10-330"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12229","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00986-06","article-title":"Evidence of influenza A virus RNA in Siberian lake ice","volume":"80","author":"Zhang","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1111\/irv.12449","article-title":"Novel multiplex assay platforms to detect influenza A hemagglutinin subtype-specific antibody responses for high-throughput and in-field applications","volume":"11","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"Influenza Other Respir. Viruses"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"648","DOI":"10.1128\/jcm.8.6.648-656.1978","article-title":"Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of antibodies to influenza A and B and parainfluenza type 1 in sera of patients","volume":"8","author":"Bishai","year":"1978","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.2307\/1592573","article-title":"Development and validation of a competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of type A influenza antibodies in avian sera","volume":"42","author":"Shafer","year":"1998","journal-title":"Avian Dis."},{"key":"ref_119","unstructured":"U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) (2024). Influenza Diagnostic Tests, FDA."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1161","DOI":"10.1351\/PAC-REP-09-08-16","article-title":"Electrochemical nucleic acid-based biosensors: Concepts, terms, and methodology (IUPAC Technical Report)","volume":"82","author":"Labuda","year":"2010","journal-title":"Pure Appl. Chem."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trac.2015.05.012","article-title":"Aptasensors for viral diagnostics","volume":"74","author":"Ferwerda","year":"2015","journal-title":"TrAC Trends Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_122","unstructured":"Rodrigues, L., and Mota, M. (2016). Bioinspired Materials for Medical Applications, Woodhead Publishing."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2018.12.112","article-title":"Screening of highly-specific aptamers and their applications in paper-based microfluidic chips for rapid diagnosis of multiple bacteria","volume":"284","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sousa, D., Ferreira, D., Rodrigues, J., and Rodrigues, L. (2019). Nanotechnology in Targeted Drug Delivery and Therapeutics. Applications of Targeted Nano Drugs and Delivery Systems, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-814029-1.00014-4"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aca.2017.07.071","article-title":"Electrochemical aptasensor for human osteopontin detection using a DNA aptamer selected by SELEX","volume":"987","author":"Meirinho","year":"2017","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2323","DOI":"10.1007\/s00253-010-2728-7","article-title":"Selection and characterization of DNA aptamers with binding selectivity to Campylobacter jejuni using whole-cell SELEX","volume":"87","author":"Dwivedi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"941","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biotechadv.2016.05.006","article-title":"Voltammetric aptasensors for protein disease biomarkers detection: A review","volume":"34","author":"Meirinho","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Adv."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bauer, M., Strom, M., Hammond, D.S., and Shigdar, S. (2019). Anything you can do, I can do better: Can aptamers replace antibodies in clinical diagnostic applications?. Molecules, 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules24234377"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6866","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules20046866","article-title":"Predicting the uncertain future of aptamer-based diagnostics and therapeutics","volume":"20","author":"Bruno","year":"2015","journal-title":"Molecules"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.32607\/20758251-2013-5-4-34-43","article-title":"Aptamers: Problems, solutions and prospects","volume":"5","author":"Lakhin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Acta Naturae"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"435102","DOI":"10.1088\/0957-4484\/27\/43\/435102","article-title":"Functionalized magnetic microparticle-based colorimetric platform for influenza A virus detection","volume":"27","author":"Chen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nanotechnology"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48410","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M409059200","article-title":"A DNA aptamer prevents influenza infection by blocking the receptor binding region of the viral hemagglutinin","volume":"279","author":"Jeon","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2018.03.047","article-title":"Aptamer selection and application in multivalent binding-based electrical impedance detection of inactivated H1N1 virus","volume":"110","author":"Bai","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5574","DOI":"10.1039\/C7CS00854F","article-title":"Molecularly imprinted polymers as receptor mimics for selective cell recognition","volume":"47","author":"Pan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Chem. Soc. Rev."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112214","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2020.112214","article-title":"Electrochemical biosensors for pathogen detection","volume":"159","author":"Cesewski","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"368","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tibtech.2019.10.002","article-title":"Molecularly imprinted polymers for cell recognition","volume":"38","author":"Piletsky","year":"2020","journal-title":"Trends Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133920","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2023.133920","article-title":"Multichannel microfluidic virus sensor for rapid detection of respiratory viruses using virus-imprinted polymer for digital livestock farming","volume":"389","author":"Khan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5045","DOI":"10.1021\/acsanm.2c00068","article-title":"Potentiometric Biosensors Based on Molecular-Imprinted Self-Assembled Monolayer Films for Rapid Detection of Influenza A Virus and SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein","volume":"5","author":"Lee","year":"2022","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Nano Mater."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"823","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1232033","article-title":"RNA-guided human genome engineering via Cas9","volume":"339","author":"Mali","year":"2013","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1402","DOI":"10.1002\/biot.201400046","article-title":"CRISPR\/Cas9-mediated genome engineering: An adeno-associated viral (AAV) vector toolbox","volume":"9","author":"Fatouros","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biotechnol. J."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1479","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2013.12.001","article-title":"Dynamic imaging of genomic loci in living human cells by an optimized CRISPR\/Cas system","volume":"155","author":"Chen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1038\/nbt.2842","article-title":"CRISPR-Cas systems for editing, regulating and targeting genomes","volume":"32","author":"Sander","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"643","DOI":"10.1038\/s41551-021-00760-7","article-title":"CRISPR-based diagnostics","volume":"5","author":"Kaminski","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Choi, W.-S., Jeong, J.H., Nicolas, H.D.G., Oh, S., Antigua, K.J.C., Park, J.-H., Kim, B., Yoon, S.-W., Shin, K.S., and Choi, Y.K. (2020). Peptide nucleic acid (PNA)-enhanced specificity of a dual-target real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) assay for the detection and differentiation of SARS-CoV-2 from related viruses. Diagnostics, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics10100775"},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"476","DOI":"10.1038\/s42003-021-02001-8","article-title":"Amplification-free RNA detection with CRISPR\u2013Cas13","volume":"4","author":"Shinoda","year":"2021","journal-title":"Commun. Biol."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Srivastava, S., Upadhyay, D.J., and Srivastava, A. (2020). Next-generation molecular diagnostics development by CRISPR\/Cas tool: Rapid detection and surveillance of viral disease outbreaks. Front. Mol. Biosci., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmolb.2020.582499"},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16374","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-52922-y","article-title":"A robust, hand-powered, instrument-free sample preparation system for point-of-care pathogen detection","volume":"9","author":"Zhao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1682","DOI":"10.1080\/22221751.2020.1793689","article-title":"Next-generation pathogen diagnosis with CRISPR\/Cas-based detection methods","volume":"9","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Emerg. Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"819","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1231143","article-title":"Multiplex genome engineering using CRISPR\/Cas systems","volume":"339","author":"Cong","year":"2013","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_150","first-page":"259","article-title":"In vitro pre-validation of gene editing by CRISPR\/Cas9 ribonucleoprotein","volume":"11","author":"Mehravar","year":"2019","journal-title":"Avicenna J. Med. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1255","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2016.04.059","article-title":"Rapid, low-cost detection of Zika virus using programmable biomolecular components","volume":"165","author":"Pardee","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2986","DOI":"10.1038\/s41596-019-0210-2","article-title":"SHERLOCK: Nucleic acid detection with CRISPR nucleases","volume":"14","author":"Kellner","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Protoc."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"438","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aam9321","article-title":"Nucleic acid detection with CRISPR-Cas13a\/C2c2","volume":"356","author":"Gootenberg","year":"2017","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"436","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aar6245","article-title":"CRISPR-Cas12a target binding unleashes indiscriminate single-stranded DNase activity","volume":"360","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1038\/s41421-018-0028-z","article-title":"CRISPR-Cas12a-assisted nucleic acid detection","volume":"4","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell Discov."},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4711","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-18575-6","article-title":"Ultrasensitive and visual detection of SARS-CoV-2 using all-in-one dual CRISPR-Cas12a assay","volume":"11","author":"Ding","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"689","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jscs.2014.09.001","article-title":"Designs, formats and applications of lateral flow assay: A literature review","volume":"19","author":"Sajid","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Saudi Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1712","DOI":"10.1007\/s12161-013-9606-8","article-title":"A chromatographic strip for rapid semi-quantitative detection of H5 subtype avian influenza viruses in poultry","volume":"6","author":"Li","year":"2013","journal-title":"Food Anal. Methods"},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Durairaj, K., Than, D.D., Nguyen, A.T.V., Kim, H.S., Yeo, S.-J., and Park, H. (2022). Cysteamine-gold coated carboxylated fluorescent nanoparticle mediated point-of-care dual-modality detection of the H5N1 pathogenic virus. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23147957"},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1933","DOI":"10.1007\/s10529-010-0379-5","article-title":"A new method for the detection of the H5 influenza virus by magnetic beads capturing quantum dot fluorescent signals","volume":"32","author":"Zhang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"412","DOI":"10.1038\/nature05064","article-title":"Microfluidic diagnostic technologies for global public health","volume":"442","author":"Yager","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3969868","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/3969868","article-title":"Evaluation of Lateral-Flow Assay for Rapid Detection of Influenza Virus","volume":"2020","author":"Han","year":"2020","journal-title":"BioMed Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120137","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2019.120137","article-title":"Ultrasensitive SERS determination of avian influenza A H7N9 virus via exonuclease III-assisted cycling amplification","volume":"205","author":"Song","year":"2019","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aca.2018.11.056","article-title":"Ultrasensitive detection of avian influenza A (H7N9) virus using surface-enhanced Raman scattering-based lateral flow immunoassay strips","volume":"1053","author":"Xiao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"895","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1910113117","article-title":"A rapid and label-free platform for virus capture and identification from clinical samples","volume":"117","author":"Yeh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2311","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-06101-1","article-title":"Paper-based electrochemical immunosensor for label-free detection of multiple avian influenza virus antigens using flexible screen-printed carbon nanotube-polydimethylsiloxane electrodes","volume":"12","author":"Lee","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1021\/acssensors.9b02126","article-title":"Avian Influenza Virus Detection by Optimized Peptide Termination on a Boron-Doped Diamond Electrode","volume":"5","author":"Matsubara","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACS Sens."},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8392","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.analchem.2c00913","article-title":"Single-Nanoparticle Collision Electrochemistry Biosensor Based on an Electrocatalytic Strategy for Highly Sensitive and Specific Detection of H7N9 Avian Influenza Virus","volume":"94","author":"Yang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aca.2017.01.031","article-title":"Highly sensitive colorimetric immunosensor for influenza virus H5N1 based on enzyme-encapsulated liposome","volume":"963","author":"Lin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2313","DOI":"10.1039\/D1AY00204J","article-title":"High-sensitivity detection of two H7 subtypes of avian influenza viruses (AIVs) by immunochromatographic assay with highly chromatic red silica nanoparticles","volume":"13","author":"Su","year":"2021","journal-title":"Anal. Methods"},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"792","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.analchem.0c03153","article-title":"A Size-Selectively Biomolecule-Immobilized Nanoprobe-Based Chemiluminescent Lateral Flow Immunoassay for Detection of Avian-Origin Viruses","volume":"93","author":"Jung","year":"2021","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46964","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.2c12088","article-title":"Non-autofluorescence Detection of H5N1 Virus Using Photochemical Aptamer Sensors Based on Persistent Luminescent Nanoparticles","volume":"14","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"384","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1122438","article-title":"Global patterns of influenza a virus in wild birds","volume":"312","author":"Olsen","year":"2006","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1128\/mr.56.1.152-179.1992","article-title":"Evolution and ecology of influenza A viruses","volume":"56","author":"Webster","year":"1992","journal-title":"Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10309","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01109-09","article-title":"Single-reaction genomic amplification accelerates sequencing and vaccine production for classical and Swine origin human influenza a viruses","volume":"83","author":"Zhou","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.01195-11","article-title":"SYBR green-based real-time reverse transcription-PCR for typing and subtyping of all hemagglutinin and neuraminidase genes of avian influenza viruses and comparison to standard serological subtyping tests","volume":"50","author":"Tsukamoto","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_177","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2011). Manual for the Laboratory Diagnosis and Virological Surveillance of Influenza, WHO."},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1007\/s12033-009-9211-7","article-title":"Development of real time RT-PCR assays for detection of type A influenza virus and for subtyping of avian H5 and H7 hemagglutinin subtypes","volume":"44","author":"Sidoti","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_179","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e59","DOI":"10.4142\/jvs.25066","article-title":"Development of a multiplex and universal RT-PCR assay for hemagglutinin and neuraminidase subtyping of avian influenza virus","volume":"26","author":"An","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_180","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2024). Influenza Virus Testing Methods, CDC."},{"key":"ref_181","unstructured":"WHO Global Influenza Surveillance and Response System (GISRS) (2017). Molecular Detection of Influenza Viruses, WHO."},{"key":"ref_182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tong, S., Zhu, X., Li, Y., Shi, M., Zhang, J., Bourgeois, M., Yang, H., Chen, X., Recuenco, S., and Gomez, J. (2013). New world bats harbor diverse influenza A viruses. PLoS Pathog., 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1003657"},{"key":"ref_183","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1080\/03079450410001724085","article-title":"Avian influenza: Recent developments","volume":"33","author":"Capua","year":"2004","journal-title":"Avian Pathol."},{"key":"ref_184","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1079\/AHR2005101","article-title":"Avian influenza virus: Prospects for prevention and control by vaccination","volume":"6","author":"Lee","year":"2005","journal-title":"Anim. Health Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_185","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2022). Global Influenza Programme, WHO."},{"key":"ref_186","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.7589\/0090-3558-47.2.401","article-title":"Replication of low pathogenic avian influenza virus in naturally infected Mallard ducks (Anas platyrhynchos) causes no morphologic lesions","volume":"47","author":"Daoust","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Wildl. Dis."},{"key":"ref_187","first-page":"20130990","article-title":"Is low pathogenic avian influenza virus virulent for wild waterbirds?","volume":"280","author":"Kuiken","year":"2013","journal-title":"Proc. Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_188","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"666","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.01625-08","article-title":"Practical considerations for high-throughput influenza A virus surveillance studies of wild birds by use of molecular diagnostic tests","volume":"47","author":"Munster","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_189","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.2307\/1589291","article-title":"Virus replication in the digestive tract of ducks exposed by aerosol to type-A influenza","volume":"22","author":"Slemons","year":"1978","journal-title":"Avian Dis."},{"key":"ref_190","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.1016\/0042-6822(78)90247-7","article-title":"Intestinal influenza: Replication and characterization of influenza viruses in ducks","volume":"84","author":"Webster","year":"1978","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_191","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"376","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prevetmed.2013.11.011","article-title":"Using quantitative disease dynamics as a tool for guiding response to avian influenza in poultry in the United States of America","volume":"113","author":"Pepin","year":"2014","journal-title":"Prev. Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref_192","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13681","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-50170-8","article-title":"Circulation of low pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI) viruses in wild birds and poultry in the Netherlands, 2006\u20132016","volume":"9","author":"Bergervoet","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"ref_193","first-page":"221","article-title":"Influenza pathobiology and pathogenesis in avian species","volume":"385","author":"Brown","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_194","unstructured":"World Organisation for Animal Health (2024). Avian Influenza (Including Infection with High Pathogenicity Avian Influenza Viruses), WOAH. Chapter 3.3.4."},{"key":"ref_195","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e15647","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2023.e15647","article-title":"A multiplex TaqMan real-time RT-PCR assay for the simultaneous detection of H4, H6, and H10 avian influenza viruses","volume":"9","author":"Yang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_196","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biologicals.2005.08.003","article-title":"Overview of avian influenza DIVA test strategies","volume":"33","author":"Suarez","year":"2005","journal-title":"Biologicals"},{"key":"ref_197","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"676","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.43.2.676-683.2005","article-title":"Diagnostic Approach for Differentiating Infected from Vaccinated Poultry on the Basis of Antibodies to NS1, the Nonstructural Protein of Influenza A Virus","volume":"43","author":"Alvarez","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_198","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"836","DOI":"10.1637\/10207-041512-Review.1","article-title":"DIVA vaccination strategies for avian influenza virus","volume":"56","author":"Suarez","year":"2012","journal-title":"Avian Dis."},{"key":"ref_199","unstructured":"OIE\/WOAH (2022). High Pathogenicity Avian Influenza and Vaccination (Terrestrial Code Guidance), WOAH."},{"key":"ref_200","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nogales, A., DeDiego, M.L., and Mart\u00ednez-Sobrido, L. (2022). Live attenuated influenza A virus vaccines with modified NS1 proteins for veterinary use. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2022.954811"},{"key":"ref_201","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.1637\/8644-020409-Reg.1","article-title":"Differentiation of infected and vaccinated animals (DIVA) using the NS1 protein of avian influenza virus","volume":"54","author":"Avellaneda","year":"2010","journal-title":"Avian Dis."},{"key":"ref_202","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1089\/vim.2015.0127","article-title":"Avian Influenza Virus and DIVA Strategies","volume":"29","author":"Hasan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Viral Immunol."},{"key":"ref_203","first-page":"229","article-title":"DIVA\u2014A vaccination strategy enabling the detection of field exposure to avian influenza","volume":"119","author":"Capua","year":"2004","journal-title":"Dev. Biol."},{"key":"ref_204","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1590\/1516-635x160273-78","article-title":"Evaluation of a commercial ELISA Kit (IDEXX) to differentiate ai virus-infected poultry from AI-vaccinated poultry (DIVA)","volume":"16","author":"Talazadeh","year":"2014","journal-title":"Rev. Bras. Ci\u00eancia Av\u00edcola"},{"key":"ref_205","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115127","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jviromet.2025.115127","article-title":"Evaluation of an N1 NA antibody-specific enzyme-linked lectin assay for detection of H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza virus infection in vaccinated birds","volume":"334","author":"Ibrahim","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Virol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_206","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1080\/0307945021000070714","article-title":"Development of a DIVA (Differentiating Infected from Vaccinated Animals) strategy using a vaccine containing a heterologous neuraminidase for the control of avian influenza","volume":"32","author":"Capua","year":"2003","journal-title":"Avian Pathol."},{"key":"ref_207","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1007\/s11033-014-3758-5","article-title":"A review on emerging diagnostic assay for viral detection: The case of avian influenza virus","volume":"42","author":"Shojaei","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_208","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126591","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2024.126591","article-title":"Nanomaterials-based immunosensors for avian influenza virus detection","volume":"279","author":"Mollarasouli","year":"2024","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_209","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2016.11.025","article-title":"Recombinant viral-vectored vaccines for the control of avian influenza in poultry","volume":"206","author":"Suarez","year":"2017","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_210","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2013.08.016","article-title":"AC electrokinetics-enhanced capacitive immunosensor for point-of-care serodiagnosis of infectious diseases","volume":"51","author":"Li","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_211","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2013.09.004","article-title":"Single-stranded DNA aptamer that specifically binds to the influenza virus NS1 protein suppresses interferon antagonism","volume":"100","author":"Woo","year":"2013","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_212","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pilvenyte, G., Ratautaite, V., Boguzaite, R., Ramanavicius, S., Chen, C.-F., Viter, R., and Ramanavicius, A. (2023). Molecularly imprinted polymer-based electrochemical sensors for the diagnosis of infectious diseases. Biosensors, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/bios13060620"},{"key":"ref_213","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115523","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2023.115523","article-title":"CRISPR\/Cas12a-Assisted isothermal amplification for rapid and specific diagnosis of respiratory virus on an microfluidic platform","volume":"237","author":"Shen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_214","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e26179","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2024.e26179","article-title":"CRISPR\/Cas-based nucleic acid detection strategies: Trends and challenges","volume":"10","author":"Zhou","year":"2024","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_215","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7966","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2011.08.067","article-title":"Development of DIVA (differentiation of infected from vaccinated animals) vaccines utilizing heterologous NA and NS1 protein strategies for the control of triple reassortant H3N2 influenza in turkeys","volume":"29","author":"Wang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_216","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1007\/s00604-020-4172-4","article-title":"Carbon nanotubes in electrochemical, colorimetric, and fluorimetric immunosensors and immunoassays: A review","volume":"187","author":"Yang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Microchim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_217","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104924","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psj.2025.104924","article-title":"Development of a graphene oxide multilayer quantum dot-based immunochromatographic strip for the ultrasensitive detection of H7 subtype avian influenza viruses","volume":"104","author":"Fu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_218","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lakshmanan, K., and Liu, B.M. (2025). Impact of Point-of-Care Testing on Diagnosis, Treatment, and Surveillance of Vaccine-Preventable Viral Infections. Diagnostics, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics15020123"},{"key":"ref_219","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hansen, S., and Abd El Wahed, A. (2020). Point-Of-Care or Point-Of-Need Diagnostic Tests: Time to Change Outbreak Investigation and Pathogen Detection. Trop. Med. Infect. Dis., 5.","DOI":"10.3390\/tropicalmed5040151"},{"key":"ref_220","first-page":"28","article-title":"Bringing lab to the field: Exploring innovations in point-of-care diagnostics for the rapid detection and management of tropical diseases in resource-limited settings","volume":"7","author":"Aborode","year":"2025","journal-title":"Adv. Biomark. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_221","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"318","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1750-2659.2011.00317.x","article-title":"Evaluation of lateral flow devices for identification of infected poultry by testing swab and feather specimens during H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza outbreaks in Vietnam","volume":"6","author":"Slomka","year":"2012","journal-title":"Influenza Other Respir. Viruses"},{"key":"ref_222","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnanoscienceau.4c00072","article-title":"Development of an Immunoassay for Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (H5N1) across Diverse Sample Matrices","volume":"5","author":"Maddox","year":"2025","journal-title":"ACS Nanosci. Au"},{"key":"ref_223","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1764","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268810002384","article-title":"A clinical specimen collection and transport medium for molecular diagnostic and genomic applications","volume":"139","author":"Daum","year":"2011","journal-title":"Epidemiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_224","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1062","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-0691.2010.03279.x","article-title":"Point-of-care tests for diagnosing infections in the developing world","volume":"16","author":"Peeling","year":"2010","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_225","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1671","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1410.080415","article-title":"Detecting Avian Influenza Virus (H5N1) in Domestic Duck Feathers","volume":"14","author":"Yamamoto","year":"2008","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis. J."},{"key":"ref_226","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.bioeng.10.061807.160524","article-title":"Point-of-Care Diagnostics for Global Health","volume":"10","author":"Yager","year":"2008","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_227","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2201085","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.202201085","article-title":"Emerging Biosensing Technologies for the Diagnostics of Viral Infectious Diseases","volume":"34","author":"Kabay","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_228","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xing, E., Chen, H., Xin, X., Cui, H., Dou, Y., and Song, S. (2025). Recent Advances in Smart Phone-Based Biosensors for Various Applications. Chemosensors, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/chemosensors13070221"},{"key":"ref_229","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Musa, E., Nia, Z.M., Bragazzi, N.L., Leung, D., Lee, N., and Kong, J.D. (2024). Avian Influenza: Lessons from Past Outbreaks and an Inventory of Data Sources, Mathematical and AI Models, and Early Warning Systems for Forecasting and Hotspot Detection to Tackle Ongoing Outbreaks. Healthcare, 12.","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.4883670"},{"key":"ref_230","unstructured":"Karlsson, E.A. (2023). Technical Item II: One Health Approaches to Addressing the Risk: Case Studies and Discussions Focused on Avian Influenza with the Objective of Implementing Effective\/Efficient Surveillance and Data Sharing Across Sectors Including Wildlife and the Environment, World Health Organisation for Animal Health."},{"key":"ref_231","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1186\/s12985-024-02545-1","article-title":"Leveraging one health as a sentinel approach for pandemic resilience","volume":"21","author":"Bartlett","year":"2024","journal-title":"Virol. J."},{"key":"ref_232","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e02111-24","DOI":"10.1128\/mbio.02111-24","article-title":"Broadening the aims of avian influenza surveillance according to the One Health approach","volume":"15","author":"Kuiken","year":"2024","journal-title":"mBio"},{"key":"ref_233","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102638","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tmaid.2023.102638","article-title":"A comprehensive review of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1: An imminent threat at doorstep","volume":"55","author":"Charostad","year":"2023","journal-title":"Travel Med. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_234","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1038\/s44298-024-00035-3","article-title":"Transmission dynamics of avian influenza viruses in Egyptian poultry markets","volume":"2","author":"Mahmoud","year":"2024","journal-title":"npj Viruses"},{"key":"ref_235","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42722","DOI":"10.1038\/srep42722","article-title":"Risk factors for avian influenza virus contamination of live poultry markets in Zhejiang, China during the 2015\u20132016 human influenza season","volume":"7","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_236","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1079","DOI":"10.1098\/rsif.2010.0510","article-title":"Impact of the implementation of rest days in live bird markets on the dynamics of H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza","volume":"8","author":"Guitian","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. R. Soc. Interface"},{"key":"ref_237","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101029","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lanmic.2024.101029","article-title":"Sensors for surveillance of RNA viruses: A One Health perspective","volume":"6","author":"Chen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Lancet Microbe"},{"key":"ref_238","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Migliozzi, D., and Guibentif, T. (2018). Assessing the Potential Deployment of Biosensors for Point-of-Care Diagnostics in Developing Countries: Technological, Economic and Regulatory Aspects. Biosensors, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/bios8040119"},{"key":"ref_239","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kuupiel, D., Bawontuo, V., and Mashamba-Thompson, T.P. (2017). Improving the Accessibility and Efficiency of Point-of-Care Diagnostics Services in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: Lean and Agile Supply Chain Management. Diagnostics, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics7040058"},{"key":"ref_240","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1771","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2009.12.009","article-title":"Validation of diagnostic tests for detection of avian influenza in vaccinated chickens using Bayesian analysis","volume":"28","author":"Engel","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_241","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1038\/s41564-018-0295-3","article-title":"REASSURED diagnostics to inform disease control strategies, strengthen health systems and improve patient outcomes","volume":"4","author":"Land","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_242","unstructured":"World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) (2024). The Register of Diagnostic Kits, WOAH."},{"key":"ref_243","unstructured":"World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) (2024). Manual of Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines for Terrestrial Animals, WOAH."},{"key":"ref_244","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Coopersmith, M., Dijkman, R., Bartlett, M.L., Currie, R., Schuurman, S., and de Wit, S. (2025). Development and Laboratory Validation of Rapid, Bird-Side Molecular Diagnostic Assays for Avian Influenza Virus Including Panzootic H5Nx. Microorganisms, 13.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202503.2405.v1"},{"key":"ref_245","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s42522-019-0007-9","article-title":"Implementing One Health approaches to confront emerging and re-emerging zoonotic disease threats: Lessons from PREDICT","volume":"2","author":"Kelly","year":"2020","journal-title":"One Health Outlook"},{"key":"ref_246","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Flynn, C.D., and Chang, D. (2024). Artificial Intelligence in Point-of-Care Biosensing: Challenges and Opportunities. Diagnostics, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics14111100"},{"key":"ref_247","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1186\/s12951-024-02774-0","article-title":"Ambient energy harvesters in wearable electronics: Fundamentals, methodologies, and applications","volume":"22","author":"Yu","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Nanobiotechnol."},{"key":"ref_248","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kardjadj, M. (2025). Advances in Point-of-Care Infectious Disease Diagnostics: Integration of Technologies, Validation, Artificial Intelligence, and Regulatory Oversight. Diagnostics, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics15222845"},{"key":"ref_249","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2403","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matt.2021.05.003","article-title":"Low-cost biosensor for rapid detection of SARS-CoV-2 at the point of care","volume":"4","author":"Torres","year":"2021","journal-title":"Matter"},{"key":"ref_250","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1038\/s41563-020-00906-z","article-title":"Diagnostics for SARS-CoV-2 infections","volume":"20","author":"Kevadiya","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat Mater."},{"key":"ref_251","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2039","DOI":"10.1002\/med.21786","article-title":"Recent progresses and remaining challenges for the detection of Zika virus","volume":"41","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Med. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_252","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108540","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bioelechem.2023.108540","article-title":"Fast-response elctrochemical biosensor based on a truncated aptamer and MXene heterolayer for West Nile virus detection in human serum","volume":"154","author":"Park","year":"2023","journal-title":"Bioelectrochemistry"},{"key":"ref_253","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saylan, Y., Erdem, \u00d6., \u00dcnal, S., and Denizli, A. (2019). An alternative medical diagnosis method: Biosensors for virus detection. Biosensors, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/bios9020065"},{"key":"ref_254","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Justino, C.I.L., Duarte, A.C., and Rocha-Santos, T.A.P. (2017). Recent progress in biosensors for environmental monitoring: A review. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17122918"}],"container-title":["Biosensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6374\/16\/2\/118\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,12]],"date-time":"2026-02-12T10:35:42Z","timestamp":1770892542000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6374\/16\/2\/118"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,12]]},"references-count":254,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2]]}},"alternative-id":["bios16020118"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/bios16020118","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-6374"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-6374","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,12]]}}}