{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]],"date-time":"2026-10-13T04:53:52Z","timestamp":1791867232181,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":103,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,26]],"date-time":"2026-03-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1774483200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100007058","name":"Northern Illinois University","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100007058","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/012wxa772","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100014108","name":"University of Texas Rio Grande Valley","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100014108","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/02p5xjf12","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biosensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Field-effect transistor (FET) biosensors using graphene have become one of the most promising biosensing platforms for the early diagnosis of diseases with features such as high sensitivity, label-free detection and application compatibility with point-of-care systems. Herein, we critically discuss recent advances in graphene FET (GFET) biosensor development toward clinically relevant biomarkers associated with representative diseases including cancer, neurodegenerative disease, infectious disease, and inflammatory conditions. Recent progress was reviewed to evaluate GFET architectures, surface functionalization methods, and detection quality. The biomarkers explored were clusterin in Alzheimer\u2019s disease, thrombin in coagulopathy, estrogen receptor \u03b1 (ER-\u03b1) in breast cancer, Carcinoembryonic antigen in lung cancer, microRNAs for malignant tumors, exosomes derived from HepG2 for the hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cell line, interleukin-6 (IL-6) for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), Polyclonal antibodies and antigens (P24) for HIV and prostate-specific antigen for prostate cancer. The developed devices demonstrate ultralow detection limits at femtomolar to attomolar concentrations with the aid of designed antibodies, aptamers and nanomaterials. Herein, this review presents the sensing mechanisms and biomedical application of various GFET platforms, focusing on their emerging potential as next-generation platforms for rapid, non-invasive and point-of-care diagnostics.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bios16040190","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,26]],"date-time":"2026-03-26T13:37:15Z","timestamp":1774532235000},"page":"190","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Recent Advances in Graphene-Based Field-Effect Transistor Biosensors for Disease Biomarker Detection and Clinical Prospects"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1362-4632","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Deeksha","family":"Nagpal","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University Centre for Research and Development, Chandigarh University, Mohali 140413, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9282-0676","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anup","family":"Singh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University Centre for Research and Development, Chandigarh University, Mohali 140413, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"John","family":"Link","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical Engineering, College of Engineering and Engineering Technology, Northern Illinois University, Dekalb, IL 60115, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5759-1716","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abijeet Singh","family":"Mehta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health and Biomedical Sciences, University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, Brownsville, TX 78521, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9152-9062","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ashok","family":"Kumar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Applied Sciences, National Institute of Technical Teachers Training and Research, Chandigarh 160019, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0339-8953","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vinay","family":"Budhraja","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical Engineering, College of Engineering and Engineering Technology, Northern Illinois University, Dekalb, IL 60115, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sengupta, J., and Hussain, C.M. (2023). CNT and Graphene-Based Transistor Biosensors for Cancer Detection: A Review. Biomolecules, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom13071024"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1902820","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.201902820","article-title":"Ultrasensitive Field-Effect biosensors enabled by the unique electronic properties of graphene","volume":"16","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Small"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108432","DOI":"10.1016\/j.microc.2023.108432","article-title":"Advances in 2d based field effect transistors as biosensing platforms: From principle to biomedical applications","volume":"187","author":"Ghasemi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Microchem. J."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e202200548","DOI":"10.1002\/elan.202200548","article-title":"Recent advances on the development of graphene-based field-effect transistors, electrochemical biosensors and electrochemiluminescence biosensors","volume":"35","author":"Hu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Electroanalysis"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1027","DOI":"10.1002\/elan.200900571","article-title":"Graphene-based Electrochemical Sensors and Biosensors: A Review","volume":"22","author":"Shao","year":"2010","journal-title":"Electroanalysis"},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"403","article-title":"Graphene field-effect transistors as bioanalytical sensors: Design, operation and performance","volume":"146","author":"Sauvage","year":"2020","journal-title":"Analyst"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2137","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-023-04760-1","article-title":"Graphene-based field-effect transistors for biosensing: Where is the field heading to?","volume":"416","author":"Szunerits","year":"2023","journal-title":"Anal. Bioanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1186\/s12951-023-02153-1","article-title":"Field effect transistor based wearable biosensors for healthcare monitoring","volume":"21","author":"Nguyen","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Nanobiotechnol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188726","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbcan.2022.188726","article-title":"Biosensors as diagnostic tools in clinical applications","volume":"1877","author":"Lino","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta (BBA)\u2014Rev. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ahmad, A., Imran, M., and Ahsan, H. (2023). Biomarkers as Biomedical Bioindicators: Approaches and techniques for the detection, analysis, and validation of novel biomarkers of diseases. Pharmaceutics, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics15061630"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113890","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2021.113890","article-title":"Real-time detection of ochratoxin A in wine through insight of aptamer conformation in conjunction with graphene field-effect transistor","volume":"200","author":"Nekrasov","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112363","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2020.112363","article-title":"Graphene field-effect transistor biosensor for detection of biotin with ultrahigh sensitivity and specificity","volume":"165","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113519","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2021.113519","article-title":"The role of graphene patterning in field-effect transistor sensors to detect the tau protein for Alzheimer\u2019s disease: Simplifying the immobilization process and improving the performance of graphene-based immunosensors","volume":"192","author":"Kwon","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115174","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2023.115174","article-title":"Sensitive label-free detection of the biomarker phosphorylated tau\u2212217 protein in Alzheimer\u2019s disease using a graphene-based solution-gated field effect transistor","volume":"228","author":"Ciou","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Zhang, X., Qi, Q., Jing, Q., Ao, S., Zhang, Z., Ding, M., Wu, M., Liu, K., Wang, W., and Ling, Y. (2022). Electrical Probing of COVID-19 Spike Protein Receptor Binding Domain via a Graphene Field-Effect Transistor. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134001","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2023.134001","article-title":"Label-free detection of synthetic, full genomic length HIV-1 RNA at the few-copy level","volume":"390","author":"Dickens","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2015.06.068","article-title":"Gold nanoparticles-decorated graphene field-effect transistor biosensor for femtomolar MicroRNA detection","volume":"74","author":"Cai","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1626","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.analchem.1c03786","article-title":"Poly-L-Lysine-Modified Graphene Field-Effect transistor biosensors for ultrasensitive breast cancer MIRNAs and SARS-CoV-2 RNA detection","volume":"94","author":"Gao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113206","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2021.113206","article-title":"Rapid and unamplified identification of COVID-19 with morpholino-modified graphene field-effect transistor nanosensor","volume":"183","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2016.12.018","article-title":"Detection of heart failure-related biomarker in whole blood with graphene field effect transistor biosensor","volume":"91","author":"Lei","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bungon, T., Haslam, C., Damiati, S., O\u2019dRiscoll, B., Whitley, T., Davey, P., Siligardi, G., Charmet, J., and Awan, S.A. (2021). Graphene FET sensors for Alzheimer\u2019s disease protein biomarker clusterin detection. Front. Mol. Biosci., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmolb.2021.651232"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4494","DOI":"10.1039\/D0AN00251H","article-title":"An integrated microfluidic platform for selective and real-time detection of thrombin biomarkers using a graphene FET","volume":"145","author":"Khan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Analyst"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3454","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.analchem.3c04809","article-title":"A drug molecule-modified graphene field-effect transistor nanosensor for rapid, label-free, and ultrasensitive detection of estrogen receptor \u03b1 protein","volume":"96","author":"Ming","year":"2024","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1007\/s40820-019-0250-8","article-title":"Novel graphene biosensor based on the functionalization of multifunctional nano-bovine serum albumin for the highly sensitive detection of cancer biomarkers","volume":"11","author":"Zhou","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nano-Micro Lett."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"1446","article-title":"Artificial nucleotide aptamer-based field-effect transistor for ultrasensitive detection of hepatoma exosomes","volume":"95","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2019.03.053","article-title":"Graphene-based fully integrated portable nanosensing system for on-line detection of cytokine biomarkers in saliva","volume":"134","author":"Hao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"792","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2018.11.041","article-title":"A smart nanosensor for the detection of human immunodeficiency virus and associated cardiovascular and arthritis diseases using functionalized graphene-based transistors","volume":"126","author":"Islam","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2302117","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.202302117","article-title":"Portable and rapid dual-biomarker detection using solution-gated graphene field transistors in the accurate diagnosis of prostate cancer","volume":"13","author":"Deng","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Healthc. Mater."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00368","DOI":"10.1002\/aelm.202500368","article-title":"Pushing biomolecule detection limit with graphene field-effect transistor biosensors","volume":"11","author":"Pham","year":"2025","journal-title":"Adv. Electron. Mater."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"689","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2015.11.052","article-title":"Quantifying the effect of ionic screening with protein-decorated graphene transistors","volume":"89","author":"Ping","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1543","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-15330-9","article-title":"Ultrasensitive detection of nucleic acids using deformed graphene channel field effect biosensors","volume":"11","author":"Hwang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18012","DOI":"10.1021\/ja108127r","article-title":"Label-Free biosensors based on Aptamer-Modified Graphene Field-Effect transistors","volume":"132","author":"Ohno","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1649","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.200903645","article-title":"Electrical Detection of DNA Hybridization with Single-Base Specificity Using Transistors Based on CVD-Grown Graphene Sheets","volume":"22","author":"Dong","year":"2010","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"308","DOI":"10.1016\/S1369-7021(11)70160-2","article-title":"Graphene in biosensing","volume":"14","author":"Pumera","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mater. Today"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"820","DOI":"10.1038\/nature08105","article-title":"Direct observation of a widely tunable bandgap in bilayer graphene","volume":"459","author":"Zhang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2590","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.analchem.2c03399","article-title":"Graphene-Based Field-Effect Transistors in biosensing and Neural interfacing Applications: Recent Advances and Prospects","volume":"95","author":"Krishnan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ramoso, J.P., Rasekh, M., and Balachandran, W. (2025). Graphene-Based Biosensors: Enabling the next Generation of Diagnostic Technologies\u2014A review. Biosensors, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/bios15090586"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.1007\/s40120-022-00338-8","article-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s Disease: Epidemiology and clinical progression","volume":"11","author":"Monfared","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neurol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137532","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2023.137532","article-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s disease: The role of proteins in formation, mechanisms, and new therapeutic approaches","volume":"817","author":"Gholami","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neurosci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mergenbayeva, S., Terzapulo, X., and Bukasov, R. (2025). Detection of biomarker Clusterin in sers immunoassays on Al foil after substrate selection and assay optimization with fluorescently labeled antibodies. Molecules, 30.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules30193974"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16000","DOI":"10.1021\/acsomega.2c08040","article-title":"Colorimetric aptasensor for the visual and microplate determination of clusterin in human urine based on aggregation characteristics of gold nanoparticles","volume":"8","author":"Wen","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACS Omega"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1097\/MBC.0000000000001130","article-title":"The Role of Thrombin in Haemostasis","volume":"33","year":"2022","journal-title":"Blood Coagul. Fibrinolysis"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"905","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.00026.2006","article-title":"Estrogen receptors: How do they signal and what are their targets","volume":"87","author":"Heldring","year":"2007","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1006\/scbi.2001.0389","article-title":"Estrogen receptor and breast cancer","volume":"11","author":"Sommer","year":"2001","journal-title":"Semin. Cancer Biol."},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"e02308","article-title":"Protein biomarkers for diagnosis of breast cancer","volume":"25","author":"Iweala","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Afr."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1751","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-025-05772-9","article-title":"Advances in carcinoembryonic antigen detection: A review of clinical applications and standardization","volume":"417","author":"Sun","year":"2025","journal-title":"Anal. Bioanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gheart.2018.09.511","article-title":"Global Atlas of Cardiovascular Disease 2000\u20132016: The Path to Prevention and Control","volume":"13","author":"Thomas","year":"2018","journal-title":"Glob. Heart"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1524","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.analchem.8b04640","article-title":"Dual-Wavelength Ratiometric electrochemiluminescence immunosensor for cardiac troponin I detection","volume":"91","author":"Ye","year":"2018","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2577","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2016.09.945","article-title":"MicroRNAs in cardiovascular disease","volume":"68","author":"Barwari","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tibs.2018.11.012","article-title":"Nanoarchitecture Frameworks for Electrochemical mIRNA detection","volume":"44","author":"Masud","year":"2019","journal-title":"Trends Biochem. Sci."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1224","DOI":"10.1002\/elan.201400055","article-title":"Electrochemical detection of miRNAs","volume":"26","author":"Lautner","year":"2014","journal-title":"Electroanalysis"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2208198","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.202208198","article-title":"Amplification-Free detection of SARS-CoV-2 down to single virus level by portable carbon nanotube biosensors","volume":"19","author":"Liang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Small"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8866","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.0c03523","article-title":"Wafer-Scale uniform carbon nanotube transistors for ultrasensitive and Label-Free detection of disease biomarkers","volume":"14","author":"Liang","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2050039","DOI":"10.1142\/S1793292020500393","article-title":"Detection of microRNA based on three-dimensional graphene field-effect transistor biosensor","volume":"15","author":"Song","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nano"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136262","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2024.136262","article-title":"Ultrasensitive graphene field-effect transistor biosensor for rapidly detecting miRNA-208a","volume":"418","author":"Hu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"837","DOI":"10.1021\/acsmaterialslett.3c01225","article-title":"Smartphone-interfaced electrochemical biosensor for microrna detection based on laser-induced graphene with \u03c0\u2013\u03c0 stacked peptide nucleic acid probes","volume":"6","author":"Barman","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACS Mater. Lett."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104522","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isci.2022.104522","article-title":"Ultrasensitive detection of exosomal miRNA with PMO-graphene quantum dots-functionalized field-effect transistor biosensor","volume":"25","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"iScience"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127637","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2025.127637","article-title":"An ultrasensitive flexible biosensor enabled by high-performance graphene field-effect transistors with defect-free van der Waals contacts for breast cancer miRNA fast detection","volume":"287","author":"Sun","year":"2025","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6734","DOI":"10.1021\/jacs.5b02251","article-title":"Evolution of functional six-letter DNA","volume":"137","author":"Zhang","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_60","first-page":"9565","article-title":"Laboratory evolution of artificially expanded DNA gives redesignable aptamers that target the toxic form of anthrax protective antigen","volume":"44","author":"Biondi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14902","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms14902","article-title":"Real-time reliable determination of binding kinetics of DNA hybridization using a multi-channel graphene biosensor","volume":"8","author":"Xu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8700","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.6b04110","article-title":"Scalable production of high-sensitivity, label-free DNA biosensors based on back-gated graphene field effect transistors","volume":"10","author":"Ping","year":"2016","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_63","first-page":"955","article-title":"Synthesis, characterization and cytotoxic evaluation of graphene oxide nanosheets: In vitro liver Cancer model","volume":"18","author":"Loutfy","year":"2017","journal-title":"Asian Pac. J. Cancer Prev."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4006","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.analchem.9b05531","article-title":"Dual-aptamer modified graphene field-effect transistor nanosensor for label-free and specific detection of hepatocellular carcinoma-derived microvesicles","volume":"92","author":"Wu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6055","DOI":"10.1039\/C9AN01332F","article-title":"Microvesicle detection by a reduced graphene oxide field-effect transistor biosensor based on a membrane biotinylation strategy","volume":"144","author":"Wu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Analyst"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1485","DOI":"10.1200\/JCO.2008.20.7753","article-title":"Hepatocellular carcinoma incidence, mortality, and survival trends in the United States from 1975 to 2005","volume":"27","author":"Altekruse","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134209","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2023.134209","article-title":"Serum biomarkers and ultrasensitive biosensors for diagnosis of early-stage hepatocellular carcinoma","volume":"393","author":"Lapitan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2085","DOI":"10.1007\/s00432-018-2712-7","article-title":"The functional role of exosome in hepatocellular carcinoma","volume":"144","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Cancer Res. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e162001","DOI":"10.5812\/hepatmon-162001","article-title":"Stem Cell-Derived exosomes significantly boost Etoposide-induced apoptosis in HepG2 liver cancer cells: A novel strategy for enhanced chemotherapy","volume":"25","author":"Naeeni","year":"2025","journal-title":"Hepat. Mon."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liang, Y., Xu, Y., Tong, Y., Chen, Y., Chen, X., and Wu, S. (2022). Graphene-Based electrochemical sensor for detection of hepatocellular carcinoma markers. Front. Chem., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fchem.2022.883627"},{"key":"ref_71","first-page":"104","article-title":"Exosomes: Emerging biomarkers unveiling cellular mysteries\u2014A narrative review","volume":"6","author":"Umeche","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Bio-X Res."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kumar, M.A., Jayavel, R., Mahalingam, S., Kim, J., and Atchudan, R. (2023). Detection of interleukin-6 protein using graphene Field-Effect transistor. Biosensors, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/bios13090834"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2503","DOI":"10.1021\/acssensors.0c00752","article-title":"Modulating the linker immobilization density on aptameric graphene field effect transistors using an electric field","volume":"5","author":"Hao","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACS Sens."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111835","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mee.2022.111835","article-title":"A wearable graphene transistor-based biosensor for monitoring IL-6 biomarker","volume":"262","author":"Laliberte","year":"2022","journal-title":"Microelectron. Eng."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khan, N.I., and Song, E. (2021). Detection of an IL-6 biomarker using a GFET platform developed with a facile organic solvent-free aptamer immobilization approach. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21041335"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"657","DOI":"10.1093\/qjmed\/hcs024","article-title":"Levels of inflammatory mediators in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease patients with anemia of chronic disease: A case-control study","volume":"105","author":"Boutou","year":"2012","journal-title":"QJM Int. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bailey, K.L., Goraya, J., and Rennard, S.L. (2011). The role of systemic inflammation in COPD. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, Humana Press eBooks.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-60761-673-3_2"},{"key":"ref_78","first-page":"4","article-title":"Lung Cytokines and Systemic Inflammation in Patients with COPD","volume":"1","author":"Gearhart","year":"2017","journal-title":"Univ. Louisville J. Respir. Infect."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cytogfr.2018.04.004","article-title":"IL-6 family cytokines: Key inflammatory mediators as biomarkers and potential therapeutic targets","volume":"41","author":"Unver","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cytokine Growth Factor Rev."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hlap\u010di\u0107, I., Belamari\u0107, D., Bosnar, M., Kifer, D., Dugac, A.V., and Rumora, L. (2020). Combination of systemic inflammatory biomarkers in assessment of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: Diagnostic performance and identification of networks and clusters. Diagnostics, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics10121029"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118556","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbon.2023.118556","article-title":"Au-functionalized wrinkle graphene biosensor for ultrasensitive detection of Interleukin-6","volume":"216","author":"Dou","year":"2023","journal-title":"Carbon"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.4028\/p-olQb7r","article-title":"Inkjet-Printed Liquid Gated Graphene field effect transistor for the detection of interleukin-6","volume":"367","author":"Jabines","year":"2024","journal-title":"Solid State Phenom."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"314","DOI":"10.1007\/s13365-013-0177-7","article-title":"Human immunodeficiency virus-associated depression: Contributions of immuno-inflammatory, monoaminergic, neurodegenerative, and neurotrophic pathways","volume":"19","author":"Fonseca","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. NeuroVirol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1515\/jbcpp-2014-0018","article-title":"Cell cycle checkpoints and pathogenesis of HIV-1 infection: A brief overview","volume":"26","author":"Kurapati","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Basic Clin. Physiol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345502","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6528\/ab0f52","article-title":"Attomolar detection of virus by liquid coplanar-gate graphene transistor on plastic","volume":"30","author":"Kim","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nanotechnology"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117395","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2025.117395","article-title":"Nanomechanical Systems for the rapid detection of HIV-1 p24 antigen","volume":"280","author":"Samuel","year":"2025","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, L., Wen, Y., Pandit, S., Mokkapati, V.R.S.S., Mijakovic, I., Li, Y., Ding, M., Ren, S., Li, W., and Liu, G. (2019). Graphene-based biosensors for the detection of prostate cancer protein biomarkers: A review. BMC Chem., 13.","DOI":"10.1186\/s13065-019-0611-x"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"739","DOI":"10.1007\/s00604-019-3850-6","article-title":"A review on nanomaterial-based field effect transistor technology for biomarker detection","volume":"186","author":"Syedmoradi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Microchim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1524","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matpr.2020.07.678","article-title":"Recent developments in graphene based field effect transistors","volume":"45","author":"Krsihna","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mater. Today Proc."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8623","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.201603550","article-title":"Flexible, Graphene-Coated biocomposite for highly sensitive, Real-Time molecular detection","volume":"26","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121581","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2020.121581","article-title":"PSA detection using label free graphene FET with coplanar electrodes based microfluidic point of care diagnostic device","volume":"222","author":"Mandal","year":"2020","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111346","DOI":"10.1016\/j.microc.2024.111346","article-title":"Graphene-based field-effect transistor biosensor for prostate-specific antigen detection","volume":"205","author":"Kong","year":"2024","journal-title":"Microchem. J."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2205886","DOI":"10.1002\/advs.202205886","article-title":"Unamplified and real-time label-free MIRNA-21 detection using solution-gated graphene transistors in prostate cancer diagnosis","volume":"10","author":"Deng","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Sci."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"024001","DOI":"10.1088\/2053-1583\/ab5dce","article-title":"Graphene transistor arrays functionalized with genetically engineered antibody fragments for Lyme disease diagnosis","volume":"7","author":"Gao","year":"2020","journal-title":"2D Mater."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.1007\/s13206-024-00176-w","article-title":"Immuno-Graphene Field-Effect Transistor-Based Cortisol Bioelectronics Using a Novel Cortisol Antibody","volume":"19","author":"Kim","year":"2025","journal-title":"BioChip J."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thriveni, G., and Ghosh, K. (2022). Advancement and challenges of biosensing using field effect transistors. Biosensors, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/bios12080647"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100565","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mtnano.2024.100565","article-title":"An aptamer-based MoS2 field-effect transistor biosensor with high sensitivity for cytokine detection","volume":"29","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mater. Today Nano"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1038\/s41378-022-00387-x","article-title":"Si nanowire Bio-FET for electrical and label-free detection of cancer cell-derived exosomes","volume":"8","author":"Zhao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Microsyst. Nanoeng."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"905","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2017.10.027","article-title":"Molecularly imprinted electrochemical sensor for the point-of-care detection of a breast cancer biomarker (CA 15-3)","volume":"256","author":"Pacheco","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ono, T., Okuda, S., Ushiba, S., Kanai, Y., and Matsumoto, K. (2024). Challenges for Field-Effect-Transistor-Based graphene biosensors. Materials, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma17020333"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Geiwitz, M., Page, O.R., Nichols, M.E., Marello, T., Hoar, C., Akinwande, D., Meyer, M.M., and Burch, K.S. (2026). Electrical readout strategies of GFET biosensors for real-world requirements. bioRxiv.","DOI":"10.64898\/2026.01.08.698482"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1542","DOI":"10.1039\/D5NH00141B","article-title":"Wearable biosensors for health monitoring: Advances in graphene-based technologies","volume":"10","author":"Abdelfattah","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nanoscale Horiz."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9804","DOI":"10.1039\/D4NR04441J","article-title":"Advancing transistor-based point-of-care (POC) biosensors: Additive manufacturing technologies and device integration strategies for real-life sensing","volume":"17","author":"Shi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nanoscale"}],"container-title":["Biosensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6374\/16\/4\/190\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]],"date-time":"2026-04-01T16:12:46Z","timestamp":1775059966000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6374\/16\/4\/190"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,26]]},"references-count":103,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4]]}},"alternative-id":["bios16040190"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/bios16040190","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-6374"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-6374","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,26]]}}}