{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T11:21:45Z","timestamp":1785410505497,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,14]],"date-time":"2026-05-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1778716800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000001","name":"National Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["CHE-1828334, CHE-2045839"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CHE-1828334, CHE-2045839"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000001","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["CHE-1828334, CHE-2045839"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CHE-1828334, CHE-2045839"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/021nxhr62","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biosensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The precise spatiotemporal monitoring of dopamine is critical for understanding neurotransmission and neurodegenerative pathologies. While traditional electrochemical methods offer excellent temporal resolution, they lack the spatial resolution required to map network-wide dynamic events. To address this, we adapted a wide-field plasmonic electrochemical microscopy (PEM) platform to spatially image localized electrochemical reactions. Specifically, we leveraged the anodic electropolymerization of dopamine into a surface-confined polydopamine nanofilm to enable label-free, pixel-level optical quantification. Bulk solution testing demonstrated highly uniform sensor sensitivity, yielding an estimated single-pixel limit of detection of 14 pM. Furthermore, utilizing a custom injection system, we successfully imaged the real-time localized delivery of micromolar dopamine concentrations and demonstrated qualitative responsiveness of the integrated optical signal to delivered dopamine as a proof-of-concept for the platform. The platform functions as a spatially resolved mass integrator while simultaneously decoupling this chemical signal from transient hydrodynamic mechanical deformations caused by dopamine injection flow. Ultimately, this platform establishes the fundamental methodology required for future high-throughput spatial monitoring of complex neurotransmitter release dynamics across cellular networks.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bios16050284","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,14]],"date-time":"2026-05-14T16:27:56Z","timestamp":1778776076000},"page":"284","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Spatially Resolved Biosensing of Localized Dopamine Release via Its Electropolymerization Using Plasmonic Electrochemical Microscopy"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Christian","family":"Martinez","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, California State University, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90032, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-5008-6772","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Samuel","family":"Groysman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, California State University, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90032, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Madison","family":"Ngo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, California State University, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90032, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yixian","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, California State University, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90032, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109873","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2021.109873","article-title":"Principles and recent developments in optical and electrochemical sensing of dopamine: A comprehensive review","volume":"183","author":"Lakshmanakumar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/0010-440X(92)90007-D","article-title":"The role of dopamine in mood disorders","volume":"33","author":"Diehl","year":"1992","journal-title":"Compr. 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