{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T18:22:09Z","timestamp":1785435729671,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":105,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,2]],"date-time":"2026-06-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780358400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"NMRC Open Fund","award":["25jan-0092"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["25jan-0092"]}]},{"name":"Advanced Optical Metrology for Asian Skin Health & Diseases","award":["H24J4a0145"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["H24J4a0145"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001348","name":"Agency of Science, Technology and Research","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001348","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/036wvzt09","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"BMRC Central Research Fund 2024"},{"name":"Manufacturing, Trade and Connectivity, Young Individual Research Grant","award":["M24N8c0099"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["M24N8c0099"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biosensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Ultraviolet (UV) light is emerging as an important tool for biosensing, biomedical signal readout, and dose monitoring because of its strong and selective interactions with nucleic acids, proteins, and other biological components. This review summarizes recent progress in UV sensing-guided biomedical systems, with emphasis on three interconnected directions: label-free and surface-weighted imaging, wearable and embedded UV dosimetry, and sensor-assisted therapeutic guidance. Representative examples include ultraviolet photoacoustic microscopy (UV-PAM) for label-free nuclear imaging, microscopy with ultraviolet surface excitation (MUSE) for rapid slide-free histology-like readout, epidermal and flexible UV dosimeters for skin-level exposure quantification, and UV therapeutic platforms that are increasingly supported by sensing, dosimetry, and feedback for safer dose delivery. Across these applications, we emphasize the shared biosensing principles of signal generation, optical or acoustic transduction, quantitative readout, calibration, and feedback-informed decision support. We also discuss the role of artificial intelligence in virtual staining, image enhancement, domain correction, dose prediction, and decision support. The review concludes with key translational challenges in standardization, uncertainty quantification, multimodal integration, and feedback-driven system design. Overall, this sensing-centered perspective helps define the role of UV technologies more clearly within biosensors-oriented biomedical engineering.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bios16060322","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,2]],"date-time":"2026-06-02T12:45:08Z","timestamp":1780404308000},"page":"322","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Ultraviolet Sensing-Guided Biomedical Systems: From Label-Free Imaging to Dosimetry and Therapy Feedback"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-1671-9912","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Haosong","family":"Du","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Design and Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore 119077, Singapore"},{"name":"Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR) Skin Research Labs, 31 Biopolis Way, #07-01 Nanos, Singapore 138669, Singapore"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-2570-2152","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yunxin","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Medicine and Biological Information Engineering, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110169, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5611-6155","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ruochong","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR) Skin Research Labs, 31 Biopolis Way, #07-01 Nanos, Singapore 138669, Singapore"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1795-8683","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Malini","family":"Olivo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR) Skin Research Labs, 31 Biopolis Way, #07-01 Nanos, Singapore 138669, Singapore"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7173-064X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Renzhe","family":"Bi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR) Skin Research Labs, 31 Biopolis Way, #07-01 Nanos, Singapore 138669, Singapore"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"925","article-title":"Ablation and Optical Third-Order Nonlinearities in Ag Nanoparticles","volume":"5","author":"Oliver","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Nanomed."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"e50509","article-title":"The Goeckerman Regimen for the Treatment of Moderate to Severe Psoriasis","volume":"11","author":"Gupta","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Vis. Exp."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kowalski, W. (2009). Ultraviolet Germicidal Irradiation Handbook: UVGI for Air and Surface Disinfection, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-01999-9"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1471-1842.2009.00848.x","article-title":"A Typology of Reviews: An Analysis of 14 Review Types and Associated Methodologies","volume":"26","author":"Grant","year":"2009","journal-title":"Health Inf. Libr. J."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1186\/s41073-019-0064-8","article-title":"SANRA\u2014A Scale for the Quality Assessment of Narrative Review Articles","volume":"4","author":"Baethge","year":"2019","journal-title":"Res. Integr. Peer Rev."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"n71","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.n71","article-title":"The PRISMA 2020 Statement: An Updated Guideline for Reporting Systematic Reviews","volume":"372","author":"Page","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e263","DOI":"10.1038\/lsa.2015.36","article-title":"Overcoming the Fundamental Light-Extraction Efficiency Limitations of Deep Ultraviolet Light-Emitting Diodes by Utilizing Transverse-Magnetic-Dominant Emission","volume":"4","author":"Kim","year":"2015","journal-title":"Light. Sci. Appl."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.semsem.2016.08.002","article-title":"Development of Deep UV LEDs and Current Problems in Material and Device Technology","volume":"Volume 96","author":"Shatalov","year":"2017","journal-title":"Semiconductors and Semimetals"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaau1643","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.aau1643","article-title":"Wireless, Battery-Free, Flexible, Miniaturized Dosimeters Monitor Exposure to Solar Radiation and to Light for Phototherapy","volume":"10","author":"Heo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100308","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pacs.2021.100308","article-title":"Deep Learning Enables Ultraviolet Photoacoustic Microscopy Based Histological Imaging with near Real-Time Virtual Staining","volume":"25","author":"Kang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Photoacoustics"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"042001","DOI":"10.1088\/2050-6120\/adf800","article-title":"Advances in Ultraviolet Microscopy","volume":"13","author":"McFarlane","year":"2025","journal-title":"Methods Appl. Fluoresc."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4139","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.35.004139","article-title":"In Vivo Label-Free Photoacoustic Microscopy of Cell Nuclei by Excitation of DNA and RNA","volume":"35","author":"Yao","year":"2010","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"957","DOI":"10.1038\/s41551-017-0165-y","article-title":"Microscopy with Ultraviolet Surface Excitation for Rapid Slide-Free Histology","volume":"1","author":"Fereidouni","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"483","DOI":"10.1667\/RR0010CC.1","article-title":"Germicidal Efficacy and Mammalian Skin Safety of 222-Nm UV Light","volume":"187","author":"Buonanno","year":"2017","journal-title":"Radiat. Res."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135974","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2023.135974","article-title":"Mapping the Knowledge Pattern of Ultraviolet Germicidal Irradiation for Cleaner Indoor Air through the Lens of Bibliometrics","volume":"391","author":"Nunayon","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99399","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-023-29243-9","article-title":"Thirty Years of Research on Photoacoustic Imaging in the Field of Cancer: A Scientometric Analysis of Hotspots, Bursts, and Research Trends","volume":"30","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1058","DOI":"10.5858\/arpa.2019-0058-RA","article-title":"Ex Vivo Microscopy: A Promising Next-Generation Digital Microscopy Tool for Surgical Pathology Practice","volume":"143","author":"Krishnamurthy","year":"2019","journal-title":"Arch. Pathol. Lab. Med."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"964","DOI":"10.1007\/s10439-020-02710-x","article-title":"Review of Wearable and Portable Sensors for Monitoring Personal Solar UV Exposure","volume":"49","author":"Huang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ann. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"627","DOI":"10.1007\/s00484-021-02216-8","article-title":"Wearable Ultraviolet Radiation Sensors for Research and Personal Use","volume":"66","author":"Henning","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Biometeorol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"031308","DOI":"10.1063\/5.0202401","article-title":"Navigating Challenges and Solutions in Quantitative Photoacoustic Imaging","volume":"11","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Rev."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"501","DOI":"10.1111\/php.13866","article-title":"Assessing the Safety of New Germicidal Far-UVC Technologies","volume":"100","author":"Justen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Photochem. Photobiol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100739","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pacs.2025.100739","article-title":"A Comprehensive Review of High-Performance Photoacoustic Microscopy Systems","volume":"44","author":"Park","year":"2025","journal-title":"Photoacoustics"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"532","DOI":"10.1111\/php.14022","article-title":"Ultraviolet Radiation Thin Film Dosimetry: A Review of Properties and Applications","volume":"101","author":"Parisi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Photochem. Photobiol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"056004","DOI":"10.1117\/1.JBO.17.5.056004","article-title":"Optimal Ultraviolet Wavelength for in Vivo Photoacoustic Imaging of Cell Nuclei","volume":"17","author":"Yao","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Opt."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100313","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pacs.2021.100313","article-title":"Ultraviolet Photoacoustic Microscopy with Tissue Clearing for High-Contrast Histological Imaging","volume":"25","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Photoacoustics"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"758","DOI":"10.1002\/lpor.201200060","article-title":"Photoacoustic Microscopy","volume":"7","author":"Yao","year":"2013","journal-title":"Laser Photonics Rev."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1602168","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.1602168","article-title":"Fast Label-Free Multilayered Histology-like Imaging of Human Breast Cancer by Photoacoustic Microscopy","volume":"3","author":"Wong","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2300652","DOI":"10.1002\/lpor.202300652","article-title":"An Ultraviolet-Transparent Ultrasound Transducer Enables High-Resolution Label-Free Photoacoustic Histopathology","volume":"18","author":"Kim","year":"2024","journal-title":"Laser Photonics Rev."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2100124","DOI":"10.1002\/lpor.202100124","article-title":"Intraoperative Label-Free Photoacoustic Histopathology of Clinical Specimens","volume":"15","author":"Baik","year":"2021","journal-title":"Laser Photonics Rev."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5401","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.401643","article-title":"High-Speed Label-Free Ultraviolet Photoacoustic Microscopy for Histology-like Imaging of Unprocessed Biological Tissues","volume":"45","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eado0518","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.ado0518","article-title":"Optical-Resolution Parallel Ultraviolet Photoacoustic Microscopy for Slide-Free Histology","volume":"10","author":"Cao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"016109","DOI":"10.1063\/5.0244272","article-title":"Extended Depth-of-Field Microscopic Imaging for Intact Histological Samples via Self-Calibrated Diplane Network","volume":"10","author":"He","year":"2025","journal-title":"APL Photonics"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3435","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.485946","article-title":"Ultraviolet Metalens for Photoacoustic Microscopy with an Elongated Depth of Focus","volume":"48","author":"Zhao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tuchin, V.V., Luo, Q., and Wang, L.V. (2025). Large-DOF Ultraviolet Photoacoustic Microscopy Using Liquid Crystal-Based Diffractive Optical Element. Proceedings of the Seventeenth International Conference on Photonics and Imaging in Biology and Medicine (PIBM 2024), SPIE.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.3057321"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1038\/s41551-022-00940-z","article-title":"Label-Free Intraoperative Histology of Bone Tissue via Deep-Learning-Assisted Ultraviolet Photoacoustic Microscopy","volume":"7","author":"Cao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"63649","article-title":"High-Speed Ultraviolet Photoacoustic Microscopy for Histological Imaging with Virtual-Staining Assisted by Deep Learning","volume":"182","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Vis. Exp."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eadz1820","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.adz1820","article-title":"Rapid Cancer Diagnosis Using Deep Learning\u2013Powered Label-Free Subcellular-Resolution Photoacoustic Histology","volume":"11","author":"Park","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"562","DOI":"10.1109\/TMI.2020.3031541","article-title":"Reconstructing Undersampled Photoacoustic Microscopy Images Using Deep Learning","volume":"40","author":"DiSpirito","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Med. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100608","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pacs.2024.100608","article-title":"UPAMNet: A Unified Network with Deep Knowledge Priors for Photoacoustic Microscopy","volume":"38","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Photoacoustics"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203702","DOI":"10.1063\/5.0300116","article-title":"Integrated Ultraviolet Photoacoustic and Spectroscopic Autofluorescence Microscopy for Label-Free Histological and Molecular Imaging","volume":"127","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121603","DOI":"10.1117\/1.JBO.23.12.121603","article-title":"Adaptation of Microscopy with Ultraviolet Surface Excitation for Enhancing STEM and Undergraduate Education","volume":"23","author":"Huang","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Opt."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"498","DOI":"10.1111\/cup.13255","article-title":"Microscopy with Ultraviolet Surface Excitation (MUSE): A Novel Approach to Real-time Inexpensive Slide-free Dermatopathology","volume":"45","author":"Qorbani","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Cutan. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4476","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-22264-2","article-title":"Rapid Histopathological Imaging of Skin and Breast Cancer Surgical Specimens Using Immersion Microscopy with Ultraviolet Surface Excitation","volume":"8","author":"Yoshitake","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6461","DOI":"10.1364\/BOE.435520","article-title":"Improved Microscopy with Ultraviolet Surface Excitation (MUSE) Using High-Index Immersion Illumination","volume":"12","author":"Huang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biomed. Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1117\/1.JBO.24.2.026501","article-title":"Microscopy with Ultraviolet Surface Excitation for Wide-Area Pathology of Breast Surgical Margins","volume":"24","author":"Xie","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Opt."},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"25","article-title":"Optical Imaging for Screening and Early Cancer Diagnosis in Low-Resource Settings","volume":"2","author":"Lorenzoni","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Bioeng."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"334","DOI":"10.1038\/s42003-021-01860-5","article-title":"Pocket MUSE: An Affordable, Versatile and High-Performance Fluorescence Microscope Using a Smartphone","volume":"4","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Commun. Biol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"673","DOI":"10.1364\/OPTICA.515501","article-title":"Multi-Scale Tissue Fluorescence Mapping with Fiber Optic Ultraviolet Excitation and Generative Modeling","volume":"11","author":"Ang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Optica"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4285","DOI":"10.1364\/BOE.570451","article-title":"Deep UV Laser Scanning Microscopy with Integrated 1050 Nm Spectral-Domain Optical Coherence Tomography for Multi-Contrast Tissue Imaging","volume":"16","author":"Martell","year":"2025","journal-title":"Biomed. Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e81015","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.81015","article-title":"Translational Rapid Ultraviolet-Excited Sectioning Tomography for Whole-Organ Multicolor Imaging with Real-Time Molecular Staining","volume":"11","author":"Yu","year":"2022","journal-title":"eLife"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5920","DOI":"10.1364\/BOE.433597","article-title":"Deep-Learning-Assisted Microscopy with Ultraviolet Surface Excitation for Rapid Slide-Free Histological Imaging","volume":"12","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biomed. Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Abraham, T., Shaw, A., O\u2019Connor, D., Todd, A., and Levenson, R. (2020). Slide-Free MUSE Microscopy to H&E Histology Modality Conversion via Unpaired Image-to-Image Translation GAN Models. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Soker, A., Almagor, M., Mai, S., and Garini, Y. (2025). AI-Powered Spectral Imaging for Virtual Pathology Staining. Bioengineering, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/bioengineering12060655"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1991","DOI":"10.1007\/s10278-024-01076-z","article-title":"DL-EDOF: Novel Multi-Focus Image Data Set and Deep Learning-Based Approach for More Accurate and Specimen-Free Extended Depth of Focus","volume":"37","author":"Dogan","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Digit. Imaging. Inform. Med."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3368","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.515783","article-title":"Extended Depth-of-Field Wide-Field Fluorescence Microscopy with a Micro-Mirror Array Lens System for Versatile Cellular Examination","volume":"49","author":"Jeon","year":"2024","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"adfm.201770013","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.201770013","article-title":"Materials and Device Designs for an Epidermal UV Colorimetric Dosimeter with Near Field Communication Capabilities (Adv. Funct. Mater. 2\/2017)","volume":"27","author":"Araki","year":"2017","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15510","DOI":"10.1039\/D4TC03140G","article-title":"Hybrid Self-Powered UV Photodetector with a Sandwich Structure of Asymmetric Interdigitated Electrodes","volume":"12","author":"Chen","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem. C"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"838","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1206157","article-title":"Epidermal Electronics","volume":"333","author":"Kim","year":"2011","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1016\/S1046-2023(02)00204-9","article-title":"Sources and Measurement of Ultraviolet Radiation","volume":"28","author":"Diffey","year":"2002","journal-title":"Methods"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e25895","DOI":"10.2196\/25895","article-title":"Real-Time UV Measurement With a Sun Protection System for Warning Young Adults About Sunburn: Prospective Cohort Study","volume":"9","author":"Robinson","year":"2021","journal-title":"JMIR mHealth uHealth"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dumont, E.L.P., Kaplan, P.D., Do, C., Banerjee, S., Barrer, M., Ezzedine, K., Zippin, J.H., and Varghese, G.I. (2024). A Randomized Trial of a Wearable UV Dosimeter for Skin Cancer Prevention. Front. Med., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2024.1259050"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"685","DOI":"10.1007\/s00403-020-02163-1","article-title":"Sun Exposure Reduction by Melanoma Survivors with Wearable Sensor Providing Real-Time UV Exposure and Daily Text Messages with Structured Goal Setting","volume":"313","author":"Robinson","year":"2021","journal-title":"Arch. Dermatol. Res."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1039\/C7LC00914C","article-title":"Wearable Sensors: Modalities, Challenges, and Prospects","volume":"18","author":"Heikenfeld","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lab. A Chip"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-0003-9-21","article-title":"A Review of Wearable Sensors and Systems with Application in Rehabilitation","volume":"9","author":"Patel","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Neuroeng. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabq6147","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.abq6147","article-title":"Disparities in Dermatology AI Performance on a Diverse, Curated Clinical Image Set","volume":"8","author":"Daneshjou","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_66","first-page":"20200209","article-title":"Time-Series Forecasting with Deep Learning: A Survey","volume":"379","author":"Lim","year":"2021","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. A Math. Phys. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"ref_67","first-page":"446","article-title":"Just-in-Time Adaptive Interventions (JITAIs) in Mobile Health: Key Components and Design Principles for Ongoing Health Behavior Support","volume":"52","author":"Smith","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ann. Behav. Med."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rehg, J.M., Murphy, S.A., and Kumar, S. (2017). From Ads to Interventions: Contextual Bandits in Mobile Health. Mobile Health, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-51394-2"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"August, L., H\u00fclsen, G., Peltoniemi, J., K\u00e4rh\u00e4, P., and Ikonen, E. (2026). Spectral Characterization of Three Wearable Electronic Ultraviolet Radiation Dosimeters. Photochem. Photobiol., early view.","DOI":"10.1111\/php.70085"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"592980","DOI":"10.4061\/2010\/592980","article-title":"Molecular Mechanisms of Ultraviolet Radiation-Induced DNA Damage and Repair","volume":"2010","author":"Rastogi","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Nucleic Acids"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2752","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-21058-w","article-title":"Far-UVC Light: A New Tool to Control the Spread of Airborne-Mediated Microbial Diseases","volume":"8","author":"Welch","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1343","DOI":"10.1111\/php.14052","article-title":"Ocular Safety of 222-Nm Far-Ultraviolet-c Full-Room Germicidal Irradiation: A 36-Month Clinical Observation","volume":"101","author":"Sugihara","year":"2025","journal-title":"Photochem. Photobiol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1111\/php.14016","article-title":"Interventional Human Ocular Safety Experiments for 222-nm far-ultraviolet-C Lamp Irradiation","volume":"101","author":"Sugihara","year":"2025","journal-title":"Photochem. Photobiol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, C., Jiang, K., Sun, X., Li, D., Zhang, C., Jiang, K., Sun, X., and Li, D. (2022). Recent Progress on AlGaN Based Deep Ultraviolet Light-Emitting Diodes below 250 Nm. Crystals, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/cryst12121812"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9623","DOI":"10.1039\/D4TC01327A","article-title":"A Self-Powered Flexible UV Photodetector Based on an Individual ZnO-Amorphous Ga2O3 Core\u2013Shell Heterojunction Microwire","volume":"12","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem. C"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2300840","DOI":"10.1002\/aelm.202300840","article-title":"Progress in Performance of AlGaN-Based Ultraviolet Light Emitting Diodes","volume":"11","author":"Lang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Adv. Elect. Mater."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, L., Peng, Y., Wu, F., Guo, W., Dai, J., and Chen, C. (2025). Enhanced Efficiency and Reliability of AlGaN UVC-LED with Tapered Hole Injection Layer. Micromachines, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/mi16121376"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.189.4.711","article-title":"312-Nanometer Ultraviolet B Light (Narrow-Band UVB) Induces Apoptosis of T Cells within Psoriatic Lesions","volume":"189","author":"Ozawa","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2654","DOI":"10.1038\/jid.2010.166","article-title":"Effective Narrow-Band UVB Radiation Therapy Suppresses the IL-23\/IL-17 Axis in Normalized Psoriasis Plaques","volume":"130","author":"Gilleaudeau","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Investig. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1320","DOI":"10.1001\/jamadermatol.2024.3897","article-title":"Home- vs Office-Based Narrowband UV-B Phototherapy for Patients With Psoriasis: The LITE Randomized Clinical Trial","volume":"160","author":"Gelfand","year":"2024","journal-title":"JAMA Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"664","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaad.2011.07.011","article-title":"A Review of Targeted Ultraviolet B Phototherapy for Psoriasis","volume":"66","author":"Mudigonda","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1007\/s10103-017-2360-1","article-title":"A Clinical Review of Phototherapy for Psoriasis","volume":"33","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lasers Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"620","DOI":"10.1016\/S0002-9394(02)02220-1","article-title":"Riboflavin\/Ultraviolet-a\u2013Induced Collagen Crosslinking for the Treatment of Keratoconus","volume":"135","author":"Wollensak","year":"2003","journal-title":"Am. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1016\/S0923-1811(98)00064-4","article-title":"Psoralen Photobiology and Photochemotherapy: 50 Years of Science and Medicine","volume":"19","author":"Bethea","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Dermatol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1207","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM197412052912301","article-title":"Photochemotherapy of Psoriasis with Oral Methoxsalen and Longwave Ultraviolet Light","volume":"291","author":"Parrish","year":"1974","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1016\/0190-9622(92)70031-A","article-title":"High-Dose UVA1 Therapy in the Treatment of Patients with Atopic Dermatitis","volume":"26","author":"Krutmann","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_87","first-page":"1","article-title":"UVA1 Phototherapy: A Concise and Practical Review","volume":"17","author":"Zandi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Skin. Ther. Lett."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1418","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.12-11387","article-title":"Brillouin Microscopy of Collagen Crosslinking: Noncontact Depth-Dependent Analysis of Corneal Elastic Modulus","volume":"54","author":"Scarcelli","year":"2013","journal-title":"Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"091504","DOI":"10.1117\/1.JBO.22.9.091504","article-title":"Optical Coherence Elastography for Evaluating Customized Riboflavin\/UV-A Corneal Collagen Crosslinking","volume":"22","author":"Singh","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Opt."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100257","DOI":"10.1016\/j.xops.2022.100257","article-title":"Acoustic Micro-Tapping Optical Coherence Elastography to Quantify Corneal Collagen Cross-Linking: An Ex Vivo Human Study","volume":"3","author":"Kirby","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ophthalmol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-018-0310-5","article-title":"Guidelines for Reinforcement Learning in Healthcare","volume":"25","author":"Gottesman","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1038\/s41597-021-00815-z","article-title":"A Patient-Centric Dataset of Images and Metadata for Identifying Melanomas Using Clinical Context","volume":"8","author":"Rotemberg","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Data"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1111\/jdv.17711","article-title":"Image-Based Automated Psoriasis Area Severity Index Scoring by Convolutional Neural Networks","volume":"36","author":"Schaap","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1259","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tibtech.2018.07.007","article-title":"Smart Bandages: The Future of Wound Care","volume":"36","author":"Derakhshandeh","year":"2018","journal-title":"Trends Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1870150","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.201870150","article-title":"Smart Bandages: Smart Bandage for Monitoring and Treatment of Chronic Wounds (Small 33\/2018)","volume":"14","author":"Mostafalu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Small"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ullah, I., Komolafe, A., Beeby, S.P., Ullah, I., Komolafe, A., and Beeby, S.P. (2024). UVC-Enabled Smart Bandage for Treatment and Temperature Monitoring of Chronic Wounds. Eng. Proc., 52.","DOI":"10.3390\/engproc2023052012"},{"key":"ref_97","first-page":"130536","article-title":"EpiCare: A Reinforcement Learning Benchmark for Dynamic Treatment Regimes","volume":"37","author":"Hargrave","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Neural Inf. Process Syst."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"466","DOI":"10.1038\/s41551-019-0362-y","article-title":"Virtual Histological Staining of Unlabelled Tissue-Autofluorescence Images via Deep Learning","volume":"3","author":"Rivenson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1933","DOI":"10.1007\/s00417-025-06792-y","article-title":"Machine Learning-Based Progress Prediction in Accelerated Cross-Linking for Keratoconus","volume":"263","author":"Wan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Graefes Arch. Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"978","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-4632.2010.04474.x","article-title":"Review: Ultraviolet Radiation and Skin Cancer","volume":"49","author":"Narayanan","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fukui, T., Niikura, T., Oda, T., Kumabe, Y., Ohashi, H., Sasaki, M., Igarashi, T., Kunisada, M., Yamano, N., and Oe, K. (2020). Exploratory Clinical Trial on the Safety and Bactericidal Effect of 222-Nm Ultraviolet C Irradiation in Healthy Humans. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0235948"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1364\/PRJ.440935","article-title":"Slide-Free Histological Imaging by Microscopy with Ultraviolet Surface Excitation Using Speckle Illumination","volume":"10","author":"Wong","year":"2022","journal-title":"Photon. Res."},{"key":"ref_103","unstructured":"International Medical Device Regulators Forum (IMDRF) (2026, March 15). Software as a Medical Device: Possible Framework for Risk Categorization and Corresponding Considerations. Available online: https:\/\/www.imdrf.org\/documents\/software-medical-device-possible-framework-risk-categorization-and-corresponding-considerations."},{"key":"ref_104","unstructured":"Center for Devices and Radiological Health, Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, and Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (2026, March 15). Clinical Decision Support Software, Available online: https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/regulatory-information\/search-fda-guidance-documents\/clinical-decision-support-software."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7631","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-83114-y","article-title":"Machine Learning Aided UV Absorbance Spectroscopy for Microbial Contamination in Cell Therapy Products","volume":"15","author":"Ng","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."}],"container-title":["Biosensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6374\/16\/6\/322\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,4]],"date-time":"2026-06-04T05:09:08Z","timestamp":1780549748000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6374\/16\/6\/322"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,2]]},"references-count":105,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6]]}},"alternative-id":["bios16060322"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/bios16060322","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-6374"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-6374","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,2]]}}}