{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,21]],"date-time":"2026-07-21T09:05:24Z","timestamp":1784624724469,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":26,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,21]],"date-time":"2026-07-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1784592000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biosensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Children who are exposed to lead may have extensive health problems, in particular intelligence deficits and developmental delays. Wide-reaching screening programs are essential to identify children in need of remediation and medical intervention. Lead exposure is most problematic in low- and middle-income countries, as well as in underserved populations in wealthier regions of the world. To increase accessibility, it is critical that screening tools are inexpensive, portable, and easy to use. Here we report a low-cost, handheld, sample-to-answer system for the detection of lead in whole blood samples. Our assay simultaneously lyses blood cells, liberates lead from hemoglobin, aggregates proteins and cellular debris, and separates the solubilized lead from the aggregate via a simple filtration device. Using a screen-printed carbon electrode, anodic stripping voltammetry with a low-cost potentiostat, and our sample-to-answer workflow, we achieved a limit of detection of 1.44 \u03bcg\/dL, which is below the blood lead reference value established by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (3.5 \u03bcg\/dL). We validated our system using pre-quantified reference samples from lead-exposed animals and demonstrated excellent agreement with our calibration curve, including for samples near the 3.5 \u03bcg\/dL threshold.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bios16070393","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,21]],"date-time":"2026-07-21T08:14:27Z","timestamp":1784621667000},"page":"393","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Sample-to-Answer Point-of-Care Blood Lead Level Test"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-5455-9611","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rachel L.","family":"Warren","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Fischell Department of Bioengineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0234-2456","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alexander R.","family":"Pueschel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fischell Department of Bioengineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2593-9244","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wei W.","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SKM Instruments Inc., Laramie, WY 82055, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ian M.","family":"White","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fischell Department of Bioengineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.2478\/v10102-012-0009-2","article-title":"Toxicity of lead: A review with recent updates","volume":"5","author":"Flora","year":"2012","journal-title":"Interdiscip. 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