{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,25]],"date-time":"2026-08-25T10:25:39Z","timestamp":1787653539257,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,25]],"date-time":"2026-08-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787616000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biosensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Diabetes is a major worldwide health concern, which emphasizes the critical need for precise and continuous glucose monitoring devices. This paper introduces a novel, non-invasive method for continuous blood glucose monitoring using on-chip multi-arm sensors designed as earbuds by using UMC 0.18 \u03bcm technology. The proposed sensor uses the dielectric characteristics of the earbud to detect variations in glucose levels while operating at various resonant frequencies, including 32, 42, 64, and 94 GHz. The sensitivity of the proposed method was evaluated using a reflection coefficient criterion of \u2223S11\u2223\u2264\u22126\u00a0dB, confirming its ability to achieve accurate detection when implemented within an earbud device. A 3D electromagnetic high-frequency structure simulator (HFSS) is used to validate the simulation. Only |S11| data are used to determine the glucose concentrations in the blinded prediction group. The results demonstrate a strong correlation between sensor responses and glucose levels. The sensor achieved a sensitivity of 12.4 MHz\/mg\/dL, 6 dB\/mg\/dL. Moreover, the earbud\u2019s homogeneous tissue architecture and naturally low eccrine sweat gland density lessen susceptibility to confounding physiological variables commonly observed in microwave-based glucose detection. As a major advancement in biomedical sensing technology, this wearable system provides a precise and useful method for non-invasive glucose monitoring.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bios16090460","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,25]],"date-time":"2026-08-25T10:04:55Z","timestamp":1787652295000},"page":"460","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["A Multifrequency Millimeter-Wave CMOS Sensor for Non-Invasive Continuous Glucose Monitoring Using UMC 0.18 \u03bcm Technology"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Dalia","family":"Elsheakh","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Electrical and Basic Science Department, Faculty of Engineering Technology, El Sewedy University of Technology, 10th of Ramadan City 44629, Egypt"},{"name":"Microstrip Department, Electronics Research Institute, El Nozha 11843, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5078-8551","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ratshih","family":"Sayed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Microelectronics Department, Electronics Research Institute, El Nozha 11843, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9721-8206","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hebatullah H.","family":"Draz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Microelectronics Department, Electronics Research Institute, El Nozha 11843, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ghada H.","family":"Ibrahim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Microelectronics Department, Electronics Research Institute, El Nozha 11843, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0830-8838","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Heba","family":"Shawkey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Microelectronics Department, Electronics Research Institute, El Nozha 11843, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Nakrani, M.N., Wineland, R.H., and Anjum, F. 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