{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,3]],"date-time":"2026-09-03T05:16:43Z","timestamp":1788412603087,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":74,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]],"date-time":"2026-09-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788220800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002322","name":"Coordena\u00e7\u00e3o de Aperfei\u00e7oamento de Pessoal de N\u00edvel Superior","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002322","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00x0ma614","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Brazilian Ministry of Defense","award":["88887.961681\/2024-00"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["88887.961681\/2024-00"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004809","name":"Financiadora de Estudos e Projetos","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["PDI-DQBRN\/154522"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PDI-DQBRN\/154522"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004809","name":"Financiadora de Estudos e Projetos","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["CMLabIME\/0160-22"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CMLabIME\/0160-22"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004809","name":"Financiadora de Estudos e Projetos","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["QUANTUM II\/3310-24"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["QUANTUM II\/3310-24"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"award":["PDI-DQBRN\/154522"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PDI-DQBRN\/154522"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/030w99567","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["CMLabIME\/0160-22"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CMLabIME\/0160-22"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/030w99567","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["QUANTUM II\/3310-24"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["QUANTUM II\/3310-24"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/030w99567","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biosensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Nanostructured carbon materials are low-dimensional systems relevant to oncology biosensing, with their utility arising from an electronic structure coupled to defect and edge states, a charge-transfer behavior and optical response that report molecular binding, an interfacial chemistry governing contact with the analyte, and, in selected cases, magnetic properties enabling manipulation and readout. In functional terms, these behaviors trace to specific quantum-relevant features\u2014quantum confinement, edge and defect states, and the resulting size-dependent optical and charge-transfer responses\u2014rather than to a generic quantum-material designation. This critical review treats nanocarbons as engineered biointerfaces whose performance is set by how the carbon surface behaves in biological fluid, how recognition chemistry is anchored, and how the binding event is transduced, with magnetic responsiveness, stability, reproducibility, and fabrication control as decisive constraints. The analysis separates three material classes\u2014non-magnetic nanocarbon sensors, hybrid carbon\u2013magnetic systems, and defect-associated or potentially metal-free magnetic carbons\u2014while grading evidence as direct, adjacent, comparator-derived, or prospective. Directly, graphene, carbon nanotubes, carbon dots, graphene quantum dots, and magnetic carbon hybrids serve in electrochemical, optical and fluorescent, field-effect, and magnetic-assisted formats. Clinical translation, however, remains constrained by biofouling, protein-corona formation, matrix interference, unstable functionalization, batch variability, incomplete standardization, and scarce validation in real samples and patient cohorts. Metal-free or defect-associated magnetic carbons therefore warrant caution, remaining prospective platforms until the preservation of magnetic response, reproducible functionalization, matrix compatibility, safety, and measurable analytical advantage are directly demonstrated.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bios16090482","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]],"date-time":"2026-09-01T08:31:13Z","timestamp":1788251473000},"page":"482","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Nanocarbon as a Quantum Material for Biointerfaces and Magnetic Platforms in Theranostic Biomedicine in Oncology: A Critical Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-2065-5081","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Priscila M.","family":"Galdino","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Nuclear Engineering Department, Instituto Militar de Engenharia (IME), Pra\u00e7a General Tib\u00farcio, 80, Urca, Rio de Janeiro 22290-270, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7061-1574","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Barbara R.","family":"Geraldino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nuclear Engineering Department, Instituto Militar de Engenharia (IME), Pra\u00e7a General Tib\u00farcio, 80, Urca, Rio de Janeiro 22290-270, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-9455-7441","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nils\u00e9ia A.","family":"Barbosa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nuclear Engineering Department, Instituto Militar de Engenharia (IME), Pra\u00e7a General Tib\u00farcio, 80, Urca, Rio de Janeiro 22290-270, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5423-0405","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fernando M.","family":"Ara\u00fajo-Moreira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nuclear Engineering Department, Instituto Militar de Engenharia (IME), Pra\u00e7a General Tib\u00farcio, 80, Urca, Rio de Janeiro 22290-270, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"RCR5168","DOI":"10.59761\/RCR5168","article-title":"Innovative nanomaterials revolutionizing clinical biosensor development: A review","volume":"94","author":"Aftab","year":"2025","journal-title":"Russ. Chem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5722","DOI":"10.1039\/D1NA00293G","article-title":"Functionalized carbon nanotubes: Synthesis, properties and applications in water purification, drug delivery, and material and biomedical sciences","volume":"3","author":"Dubey","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nanoscale Adv."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1007\/s13205-022-03175-6","article-title":"Carbon nanostructures: A comprehensive review of potential applications and toxic effects","volume":"12","author":"Farmand","year":"2022","journal-title":"3 Biotech"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gao, S., Xu, B., Sun, J., and Zhang, Z. (2024). Nanotechnological advances in cancer therapy: A comprehensive review of carbon nanotube applications. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2024.1351787"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2400283","DOI":"10.1002\/adtp.202400283","article-title":"Carbon nanotubes in cancer diagnosis and treatment: Current trends and future perspectives","volume":"8","author":"Kumar","year":"2025","journal-title":"Adv. Ther."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"232","article-title":"Biomedical applications of carbon-based nanomaterials: Exploring recent advances in therapeutics, diagnostics, and tissue engineering","volume":"15","author":"Parveen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Adv. Pharm. Bull."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104470","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drudis.2025.104470","article-title":"Carbon dots in oncology: Multifunctional nanoplatforms for diagnosis, targeted therapy, and drug discovery","volume":"30","year":"2025","journal-title":"Drug Discov. Today"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20240150","DOI":"10.1515\/gps-2024-0150","article-title":"An updated review on carbon nanomaterials: Types, synthesis, functionalization and applications, degradation and toxicity","volume":"13","author":"Roy","year":"2024","journal-title":"Green Process. Synth."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2290","DOI":"10.7150\/thno.69628","article-title":"Versatile carbon nanoplatforms for cancer treatment and diagnosis: Strategies, applications and future perspectives","volume":"12","author":"Tang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Theranostics"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2400279","DOI":"10.1002\/admt.202400279","article-title":"Single-walled carbon nanotube-based optical nano\/biosensors for biomedical applications: Role in bioimaging, disease diagnosis, and biomarkers detection","volume":"9","author":"Acharya","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Mater. Technol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2400037","DOI":"10.1002\/adsr.202400037","article-title":"Carbon-based biosensor in point of care setting","volume":"3","author":"Jin","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Sens. Res."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117368","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2023.117368","article-title":"Revolutionizing cancer monitoring with carbon-based electrochemical biosensors","volume":"239","author":"Karimi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e202200282","DOI":"10.1002\/cbic.202200282","article-title":"Fabrication and functionalisation of nanocarbon-based field-effect transistor biosensors","volume":"23","author":"Lee","year":"2022","journal-title":"ChemBioChem"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8866","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.0c03523","article-title":"Wafer-scale uniform carbon nanotube transistors for ultrasensitive and label-free detection of disease biomarkers","volume":"14","author":"Liang","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ramoso, J.P.A., Rasekh, M., and Balachandran, W. (2025). Graphene-based biosensors: Enabling the next generation of diagnostic technologies\u2014A review. Biosensors, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/bios15090586"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rodr\u00edguez, M.C., Dalmasso, P., Rubianes, M.D., Dragnic, S.B., Gallay, P., Mujica, M.L., Montemerlo, A., Perrachione, F., Tamborelli, L.A., and Vaschetti, V. (2022). Carbon nanomaterials-based electrochemical cancer biomarkers biosensors. The Detection of Biomarkers, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-822859-3.00020-1"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1002\/asia.202001260","article-title":"Recent applications of carbon nanomaterials for microRNA electrochemical sensing","volume":"16","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Chem. Asian J."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.29328\/journal.aac.1001042","article-title":"Nuclear science and magnetic carbon: A promising way from a chemical method to detect and fight cancer and tumors\/neoplasms","volume":"7","author":"Serrano","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ann. Adv. Chem."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ara\u00fajo-Moreira, F.M. (2024). Ferromagnetic carbon\/graphite: From CBRN defense to sensors applied to oncology as a promising way to detect and fight cancer and tumors\/neoplasms. Med. Res. Arch., 12.","DOI":"10.18103\/mra.v12i8.5508"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5814","DOI":"10.1021\/acsphotonics.5c00838","article-title":"Unlocking the translational potential of nanophotonic biosensors: Perspectives on application-guided design","volume":"12","author":"Adi","year":"2025","journal-title":"ACS Photonics"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31108","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-82401-y","article-title":"Enhancing translational medical research through proof-of-concept services: Clinicians\u2019 perspectives","volume":"14","author":"Yuan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"(2026, July 13). ClinicalTrials.gov. Electrochemical Biosensor Based on Nitrogen, Sulfur-Doped Graphene Quantum Dots Decorated with Gold Nanoparticles for Breast Cancer Diagnosis: From Academic Research to Clinical Translation. ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT07034248. National Library of Medicine, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT07034248."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"(2026, July 13). ClinicalTrials.gov. Application of Folic Acid-Targeted Near-Infrared-II (NIR-II) Carbon Dots in Ex Vivo Histopathological Analysis of Hepatocellular Carcinoma. ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT07295340. National Library of Medicine, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT07295340."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"(2026, July 13). ClinicalTrials.gov. First-in-Human Clinical Investigation of Safety and Feasibility of a Novel Graphene Micro-Electrocorticography Array for Brain Mapping in Neuro-Oncology. ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT06368310. National Library of Medicine, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT06368310."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"(2026, July 13). ClinicalTrials.gov. Carbon Nanoparticle-Loaded Iron [CNSI-Fe(II)] Dose Escalation Study for the Treatment of Advanced Solid Tumors: Phase 1 Clinical Trial. ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT06048367. National Library of Medicine, Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/study\/NCT06048367."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125408","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevB.75.125408","article-title":"Defect-induced magnetism in graphene","volume":"75","author":"Yazyev","year":"2007","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. B"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3201","DOI":"10.1021\/am100673g","article-title":"Supraparamagnetic, conductive, and processable multifunctional graphene nanosheets coated with high-density Fe3O4 nanoparticles","volume":"2","author":"He","year":"2010","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mukherjee, S., Liang, L., and Veiseh, O. (2020). Recent advancements of magnetic nanomaterials in cancer therapy. Pharmaceutics, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics12020147"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170176","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2025.170176","article-title":"Nanocarbon-based magnetic nanostructures: From biosensing and therapeutic to tissue engineering and other biomedical applications","volume":"526","author":"Sadat","year":"2025","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trac.2008.05.009","article-title":"Functionalized carbon nanotubes and nanofibers for biosensing applications","volume":"27","author":"Wang","year":"2008","journal-title":"TrAC Trends Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1874","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jctc.0c01172","article-title":"Discontinuous molecular dynamics simulations of biomolecule interfacial behavior: Study of Ovispirin-1 adsorption on a graphene surface","volume":"17","author":"Zheng","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Chem. Theory Comput."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2075","DOI":"10.1021\/acssensors.2c00967","article-title":"Aptamer-functionalized carbon nanotube field-effect transistor biosensors for Alzheimer disease serum biomarker detection","volume":"7","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"ACS Sens."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2343","DOI":"10.1002\/asia.201700814","article-title":"Fluorescence and sensing applications of graphene oxide and graphene quantum dots: A review","volume":"12","author":"Zheng","year":"2017","journal-title":"Chem. Asian J."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2724","DOI":"10.1021\/acssensors.0c01556","article-title":"Recent developments of carbon dots in biosensing: A review","volume":"5","author":"Ji","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACS Sens."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Verma, A.K., Noumani, A., Yadav, A.K., and Solanki, P.R. (2023). FRET based biosensor: Principle, applications, recent advances and challenges. Diagnostics, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics13081375"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, F., Xie, Z., Zhang, Q., Zada, S., Lin, R., Deng, Y., Liu, Q., Chen, H., Zhou, H., and Miao, H. (2025). Recent advances in fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) biosensors for exosomes. Curr. Issues Mol. Biol., 47.","DOI":"10.3390\/cimb47040235"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4922","DOI":"10.1021\/acsabm.0c00427","article-title":"Biofunctionalized graphene quantum dots based fluorescent biosensor toward efficient detection of small cell lung cancer","volume":"3","author":"Kalkal","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Bio Mater."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1732","DOI":"10.1021\/acssensors.9b00514","article-title":"Review of carbon and graphene quantum dots for sensing","volume":"4","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"ACS Sens."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u015eak, B., Sousa, H.B.A., and Prior, J.A.V. (2025). Carbon nanomaterial-based electrochemical biosensors for Alzheimer\u2019s disease biomarkers: Progress, challenges, and future perspectives. Biosensors, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/bios15100684"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23937","DOI":"10.1039\/D5RA07384G","article-title":"Graphene field-effect transistor based multiplexed sensing platform for simultaneous detection of multiple Alzheimer\u2019s disease biomarkers","volume":"16","author":"Guo","year":"2026","journal-title":"RSC Adv."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102494","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mtchem.2024.102494","article-title":"Magnetic-material-assisted bioassays: From millimeter magnetic bars to nanometer magnetic particles","volume":"43","author":"Bakhshayesh","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mater. Today Chem."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, M., Jin, L., Leung, P.H.-M., Chow, F.W.-N., Zhao, X., Chen, H., Pan, W., Liu, H., and Li, S. (2024). Advancements in magnetic nanoparticle-based biosensors for point-of-care testing. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2024.1393789"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Souza, F.G., de Souza Cardoso Delfino, C., and Camargo, Y.R.d.M. (2026). Why magnetic nanoparticles still struggle to translate: A systematic analysis of structural gaps in nanobiotechnology. Magnetochemistry, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/magnetochemistry12060065"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"752","DOI":"10.1021\/acsabm.3c00983","article-title":"Carbon nanomaterials for biomedical applications: Progress and outlook","volume":"7","author":"Malode","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Bio Mater."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103089","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rechem.2026.103089","article-title":"Carbon dots for fluorescence bioimaging: Advances in synthesis, optical properties, and multimodal applications","volume":"21","author":"Ahmad","year":"2026","journal-title":"Results Chem."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1039\/C6TB02115H","article-title":"One-pot synthesis of gadolinium-doped carbon quantum dots for high-performance multimodal bioimaging","volume":"5","author":"Pan","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem. B"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9695","DOI":"10.2147\/IJN.S520205","article-title":"Research progress on nucleus-targeting carbon nanoparticles for tumor imaging and therapy","volume":"20","author":"Mu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Nanomed."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1314","DOI":"10.1080\/21691401.2017.1389746","article-title":"Magnetic carbon nanotubes: Preparation, physical properties, and applications in biomedicine","volume":"46","author":"Samadishadlou","year":"2018","journal-title":"Artif. Cells Nanomed. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7855","DOI":"10.1021\/acsabm.5c00905","article-title":"Targeted therapy for glioblastoma: Synergistic effects of GO\/C-TMZ@PmAb and magnetic hyperthermia","volume":"8","author":"Ozel","year":"2025","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Bio Mater."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7220","DOI":"10.1039\/D1NR08550F","article-title":"Doxorubicin delivery performance of superparamagnetic carbon multi-core shell nanoparticles: pH dependence, stability and kinetic insight","volume":"14","author":"Silva","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nanoscale"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3899","DOI":"10.1039\/C7CS00288B","article-title":"Emerging chemical strategies for imprinting magnetism in graphene and related 2D materials for spintronic and biomedical applications","volume":"47","author":"Ugolotti","year":"2018","journal-title":"Chem. Soc. Rev."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Svadlakova, T., Holmannova, D., Kolackova, M., Malkova, A., Krejsek, J., and Fiala, Z. (2022). Immunotoxicity of carbon-based nanomaterials, starring phagocytes. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23168889"},{"key":"ref_53","first-page":"13993","article-title":"Impact of nanoparticle physicochemical properties on protein corona and macrophage polarization","volume":"15","author":"Xiao","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"516","DOI":"10.1021\/nn1024303","article-title":"In vivo pharmacokinetics, long-term biodistribution, and toxicology of PEGylated graphene in mice","volume":"5","author":"Yang","year":"2011","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10637","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.chemrev.5b00112","article-title":"Iron oxide based nanoparticles for multimodal imaging and magnetoresponsive therapy","volume":"115","author":"Lee","year":"2015","journal-title":"Chem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"446","DOI":"10.1002\/wnan.1311","article-title":"Open challenges in magnetic drug targeting","volume":"7","author":"Shapiro","year":"2015","journal-title":"WIREs Nanomed. Nanobiotechnology"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2092","DOI":"10.3762\/bjnano.16.144","article-title":"Toward clinical translation of carbon nanomaterials in anticancer drug delivery: The need for standardisation","volume":"16","author":"Bartkowski","year":"2025","journal-title":"Beilstein J. Nanotechnol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100601","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envadv.2024.100601","article-title":"An insight into the toxicological impacts of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) on human health: A review","volume":"18","author":"Awasthi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ. Adv."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, G., Yang, L., Chen, G., Xu, F., Yang, F., Yu, H., Li, L., Dong, X., Han, J., and Cao, C. (2021). A review on drug delivery system for tumor therapy. Front. Pharmacol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2021.735446"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111823","DOI":"10.1016\/j.colsurfb.2021.111823","article-title":"Exploring pH dependent delivery of 5-fluorouracil from functionalized multi-walled carbon nanotubes","volume":"205","author":"Solhjoo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chudoba, D., Ja\u017cd\u017cewska, M., \u0141udzik, K., Wo\u0142oszczuk, S., Juszy\u0144ska-Ga\u0142\u0105zka, E., and Ko\u015bci\u0144ski, M. (2021). Description of release process of doxorubicin from modified carbon nanotubes. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms222112003"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"044407","DOI":"10.1088\/1468-6996\/14\/4\/044407","article-title":"Non-metallic nanomaterials in cancer theranostics: A review of silica- and carbon-based drug delivery systems","volume":"14","author":"Chen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152770","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2025.152770","article-title":"SPION-functionalized CAR-T cells: Overcoming key barriers in solid tumor therapy","volume":"788","author":"Carnell","year":"2025","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"547","DOI":"10.1089\/lap.2019.0794","article-title":"Application of nanocarbon in breast approach endoscopic thyroidectomy thyroid cancer surgery","volume":"30","author":"Ma","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Laparoendosc. Adv. Surg. Tech."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1093\/jjco\/hyaa011","article-title":"The safety and effectiveness of carbon nanoparticles suspension in tracking lymph node metastases of colorectal cancer: A prospective randomized controlled trial","volume":"50","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Jpn. J. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2052","DOI":"10.21037\/jgo-21-457","article-title":"Clinical application of nano-carbon to improve the accuracy of lymph node staging in patients with advanced gastric cancer receiving neoadjuvant chemotherapy: A prospective randomized controlled trial","volume":"12","author":"Yang","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Gastrointest. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"870","DOI":"10.12998\/wjcc.v10.i3.870","article-title":"Role of carbon nanotracers in lymph node dissection of advanced gastric cancer and the selection of preoperative labeling time","volume":"10","author":"Zhao","year":"2022","journal-title":"World J. Clin. Cases"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"214458","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bioadv.2025.214458","article-title":"Magnetic continuum robot-mediated intracranial delivery of peptide nanophotosensitizers for glioblastoma photodynamic therapy","volume":"178","author":"Wu","year":"2026","journal-title":"Biomater. Adv."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.2217\/nnm-2017-0300","article-title":"Magnetoelectric nanoparticles for delivery of antitumor peptides into glioblastoma cells by magnetic fields","volume":"13","author":"Stewart","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nanomedicine"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E9445","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1711924114","article-title":"Clinical validation of a nanodiamond-embedded thermoplastic biomaterial","volume":"114","author":"Lee","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_71","unstructured":"U.S. Food and Drug Administration (2026, May 31). Drug Products, Including Biological Products, That Contain Nanomaterials: Guidance for industry; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Available online: https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/regulatory-information\/search-fda-guidance-documents\/drug-products-including-biological-products-contain-nanomaterials-guidance-industry."},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"U.S. Food and Drug Administration (2026, May 31). Considering Whether an FDA-Regulated Product Involves the Application of Nanotechnology: Guidance for Industry; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Available online: https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/regulatory-information\/search-fda-guidance-documents\/considering-whether-fda-regulated-product-involves-application-nanotechnology."},{"key":"ref_73","unstructured":"(2025). Biological Evaluation of Medical Devices\u2014Part 1: Requirements and General Principles for the Evaluation of Biological Safety Within a Risk Management Process (Standard No. ISO 10993-1:2025). Available online: https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/10993-1."},{"key":"ref_74","first-page":"353","article-title":"Advances in medical devices using nanomaterials and nanotechnology: Innovation and regulatory science","volume":"48","author":"Lin","year":"2025","journal-title":"Bioact. Mater."}],"container-title":["Biosensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6374\/16\/9\/482\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,3]],"date-time":"2026-09-03T04:37:50Z","timestamp":1788410270000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6374\/16\/9\/482"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]]},"references-count":74,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["bios16090482"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/bios16090482","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-6374"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-6374","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]]}}}