{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T05:07:14Z","timestamp":1790140034463,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":136,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,20]],"date-time":"2026-09-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1789862400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biosensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>For the diagnosis of diabetes, glycemic control, treatment modification, and the avoidance of both acute and long-term consequences, accurate glucose monitoring is crucial. This study examines the development of glucose-monitoring systems, from traditional diagnostic tests and finger-prick electrochemical glucometers to wearable, continuous, minimally invasive, and non-invasive sensing platforms. Major invasive technologies, including enzymatic and non-enzymatic electrochemical sensors, microdialysis systems, hexokinase-based photometric assays, and field-effect transistor biosensors, are critically evaluated. The ability of minimally invasive methods to access interstitial fluid with less pain is discussed, including fluorescence probes, surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy, and microneedle arrays. Emerging non-invasive approaches are also evaluated. These include reverse iontophoresis, optical coherence tomography, infrared and photoacoustic spectroscopy, microwave resonators, smart contact lenses, and AI-assisted wearable systems. Finally, the review identifies major barriers related to sensitivity, selectivity, calibration, biofouling, biocompatibility, physiological variability, and clinical translation. It also outlines opportunities for intelligent, painless, and patient-centered glucose monitoring.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bios16090525","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,22]],"date-time":"2026-09-22T09:04:17Z","timestamp":1790067857000},"page":"525","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["The Evolution of Next-Generation Glucose Monitoring Systems: Developments from Conventional Diagnostics to Wearable and Continuous Sensing Platforms\u2014A Narrative Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7782-7514","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sumedha Nitin","family":"Prabhu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomedical Science & Engineering Programme, School of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen 518172, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"847","DOI":"10.1038\/nature05483","article-title":"Adipocytes as regulators of energy balance and glucose homeostasis","volume":"444","author":"Rosen","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2026, May 14). Noncommunicable Diseases. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/noncommunicable-diseases."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Diabetes.co.uk (2026, May 14). Living with Diabetes Blood Sugar Level Ranges 2019. Available online: https:\/\/www.diabetes.co.uk\/diabetes_care\/blood-sugar-level-ranges.html."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diabres.2013.08.003","article-title":"International diabetes federation","volume":"101","author":"Nolan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1335","DOI":"10.2337\/dc09-9032","article-title":"Hyperglycemic crises in adult patients with diabetes","volume":"32","author":"Kitabchi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S11","DOI":"10.2337\/dc17-S005","article-title":"2. Classification and Diagnosis of Diabetes","volume":"40","author":"Association","year":"2016","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.2144\/btn-2019-0023","article-title":"A fast and simple fluorometric method to detect cell death in 3D intestinal organoids","volume":"67","author":"Bode","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biotechniques"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"442","DOI":"10.1089\/1520915041706018","article-title":"Analysis: Pendra: The once and future noninvasive continuous glucose monitoring device?","volume":"6","author":"Weinzimer","year":"2004","journal-title":"Diabetes Technol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.3390\/diabetology3010005","article-title":"Recent progress and perspectives on non-invasive glucose sensors","volume":"3","author":"Davison","year":"2022","journal-title":"Diabetology"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2018.09.076","article-title":"Co-MOF nanosheet array: A high-performance electrochemical sensor for non-enzymatic glucose detection","volume":"278","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4855","DOI":"10.3390\/s100504855","article-title":"A comprehensive review of glucose biosensors based on nanostructured metal-oxides","volume":"10","author":"Rahman","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e201800201","DOI":"10.1002\/jbio.201800201","article-title":"Raman spectroscopy investigation of biochemical changes in tumor spheroids with aging and after treatment with staurosporine","volume":"12","author":"Jamieson","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Biophotonics"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16710","DOI":"10.1039\/C6NR06031E","article-title":"Targeted SERS nanosensors measure physicochemical gradients and free energy changes in live 3D tumor spheroids","volume":"8","author":"Jamieson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nanoscale"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5056","DOI":"10.1039\/C6AN01032F","article-title":"Measuring the effects of fractionated radiation therapy in a 3D prostate cancer model system using SERS nanosensors","volume":"141","author":"Camus","year":"2016","journal-title":"Analyst"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msec.2014.04.013","article-title":"A review of recent advances in nonenzymatic glucose sensors","volume":"41","author":"Tian","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng. C"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1006\/abio.2001.5544","article-title":"A novel fluorescence competitive assay for glucose determinations by using a thermostable glucokinase from the thermophilic microorganism Bacillus stearothermophilus","volume":"303","author":"DiCesare","year":"2002","journal-title":"Anal. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7556","DOI":"10.1021\/ac0511997","article-title":"In Vivo Fluorescence Detection of Glucose Using a Single-Walled Carbon Nanotube Optical Sensor:\u2009 Design, Fluorophore Properties, Advantages, and Disadvantages","volume":"77","author":"Barone","year":"2005","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135243","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2023.135243","article-title":"Continuous in-vitro physiological glucose sensing for co-cultured 3D tumour spheroids using SERS based nano particle sensors (SERS-gNPS)","volume":"404","author":"Dey","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Yonzon, C.R., Lyandres, O., Shah, N.C., Dieringer, J.A., and Van Duyne, R.P. (2006). Glucose sensing with surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy. Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering: Physics and Applications, Springer."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1039\/a827241z","article-title":"Surface-enhanced Raman scattering","volume":"27","author":"Campion","year":"1998","journal-title":"Chem. Soc. Rev."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.physchem.58.032806.104607","article-title":"Localized surface plasmon resonance spectroscopy and sensing","volume":"58","author":"Willets","year":"2007","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Phys. Chem."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2194","DOI":"10.1021\/nl400698w","article-title":"Directional Raman scattering from single molecules in the feed gaps of optical antennas","volume":"13","author":"Wang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Villena Gonzales, W., Mobashsher, A.T., and Abbosh, A. (2019). The progress of glucose monitoring\u2014A review of invasive to minimally and non-invasive techniques, devices and sensors. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19040800"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mohamad Nor, N., Ridhuan, N.S., and Abdul Razak, K. (2022). Progress of enzymatic and non-enzymatic electrochemical glucose biosensor based on nanomaterial-modified electrode. Biosensors, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/bios12121136"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biotechadv.2009.04.003","article-title":"Glucose oxidase\u2014An overview","volume":"27","author":"Bankar","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Adv."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.1042\/bj3470553","article-title":"Conserved arginine-516 of Penicillium amagasakiense glucose oxidase is essential for the efficient binding of \u03b2-D-glucose","volume":"347","author":"Witt","year":"2000","journal-title":"Biochem. J."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1190","DOI":"10.1128\/aem.58.4.1190-1194.1992","article-title":"Localization of glucose oxidase and catalase activities in Aspergillus niger","volume":"58","author":"Witteveen","year":"1992","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1002\/bbpc.19800840111","article-title":"The electrooxidation of glucose in phosphate buffer solutions: Kinetics and reaction mechanism","volume":"84","author":"Ernst","year":"1980","journal-title":"Berichte Der Bunsenges. F\u00fcr Phys. Chem."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6326","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.analchem.6b00568","article-title":"A paper-based \u201cpop-up\u201d electrochemical device for analysis of beta-hydroxybutyrate","volume":"88","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1016\/S0003-2670(01)82476-4","article-title":"An enzyme electrode for the amperometric determination of glucose","volume":"64","author":"Guilbault","year":"1973","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2009.07.023","article-title":"Gold nanowire array electrode for non-enzymatic voltammetric and amperometric glucose detection","volume":"142","author":"Cherevko","year":"2009","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Koike, K., Sasaki, T., Hiraki, K., Ike, K., Hirofuji, Y., and Yano, M. (2020). Characteristics of an extended gate field-effect transistor for glucose sensing using an enzyme-containing silk fibroin membrane as the bio-chemical component. Biosensors, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/bios10060057"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115448","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2023.115448","article-title":"Non-invasive, ultrasensitive detection of glucose in saliva using metal oxide transistors","volume":"237","author":"Sharma","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1357","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2014.04.079","article-title":"Graphene-based field effect transistor enzymatic glucose biosensor using silk protein for enzyme immobilization and device substrate","volume":"202","author":"You","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jlumin.2016.12.006","article-title":"Graphene quantum dots prepared from glucose as optical sensor for glucose","volume":"184","author":"Shehab","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Lumin."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9724","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.8b19383","article-title":"Enokitake mushroom-like standing gold nanowires toward wearable noninvasive bimodal glucose and strain sensing","volume":"11","author":"Zhai","year":"2019","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14553","DOI":"10.1039\/D0CC05650B","article-title":"Electrochemical non-enzymatic glucose sensors: Recent progress and perspectives","volume":"56","author":"Wei","year":"2020","journal-title":"Chem. Commun."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105774","DOI":"10.1016\/j.microc.2020.105774","article-title":"Highly selective and rapid non-enzymatic glucose sensing at ultrathin layered Nb doped C3N4 for extended linearity range","volume":"160","author":"Imran","year":"2021","journal-title":"Microchem. J."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Imran, H., Alam, A., Dharuman, V., and Lim, S. (2022). Fabrication of enzyme-free and rapid electrochemical detection of glucose sensor based on ZnO rod and Ru doped carbon nitride modified gold transducer. Nanomaterials, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nano12101778"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pan, Y., Zhang, J., Guo, X., Li, Y., Li, L., and Pan, L. (2024). Recent advances in conductive polymers-based electrochemical sensors for biomedical and environmental applications. Polymers, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym16111597"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"370","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2019.02.006","article-title":"Fabrication of hollow CuO\/PANI hybrid nanofibers for non-enzymatic electrochemical detection of H2O2 and glucose","volume":"286","author":"Liu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129569","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2021.129569","article-title":"Fabrication of a microdialysis-based nonenzymatic microfluidic sensor for regular glucose measurement","volume":"333","author":"Najmi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6569","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.analchem.9b00152","article-title":"Highly stretchable and strain-insensitive fiber-based wearable electrochemical biosensor to monitor glucose in the sweat","volume":"91","author":"Zhao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1177\/000456328502200401","article-title":"Measurement of blood glucose","volume":"22","author":"Burrin","year":"1985","journal-title":"Ann. Clin. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"John, S., Weiss, J.N., and Ribalet, B. (2011). Subcellular localization of hexokinases I and II directs the metabolic fate of glucose. PLoS ONE, 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0017674"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111962","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2019.111962","article-title":"ISFET and Dex-AgNPs based portable sensor for reusable and real-time determinations of concanavalin A and glucose on smartphone","volume":"151","author":"Zhao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/0003-2670(95)00592-7","article-title":"Glucose-sensitive ion-sensitive field-effect transistor-based biosensor with additional positively charged membrane. Dynamic range extension and reduction of buffer concentration influence on the sensor response","volume":"322","author":"Volotovsky","year":"1996","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"807","DOI":"10.1007\/s00339-015-9122-3","article-title":"ZnO nano-array-based EGFET biosensor for glucose detection","volume":"119","author":"Qi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. A"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100635","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mtchem.2021.100635","article-title":"A fully integrated graphene-polymer field-effect transistor biosensing device for on-site detection of glucose in human urine","volume":"23","author":"Huang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mater. Today Chem."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1242","DOI":"10.1177\/193229681200600602","article-title":"Overview of fluorescence glucose sensing: A technology with a bright future","volume":"6","author":"Klonoff","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6134","DOI":"10.1021\/ac051357u","article-title":"Real-time glucose sensing by surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy in bovine plasma facilitated by a mixed decanethiol\/mercaptohexanol partition layer","volume":"77","author":"Lyandres","year":"2005","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1007\/s10544-018-0349-6","article-title":"Real-time intradermal continuous glucose monitoring using a minimally invasive microneedle-based system","volume":"20","author":"Ribet","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biomed. Microdevices"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1006\/abio.2001.5170","article-title":"Evaluation of two synthetic glucose probes for fluorescence-lifetime-based sensing","volume":"294","author":"DiCesare","year":"2001","journal-title":"Anal. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, L., Hwang, E., and Zhang, J. (2018). Fluorescent nanobiosensors for sensing glucose. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18051440"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhai, H., Bai, Y., Qin, J., and Feng, F. (2019). Colorimetric and ratiometric fluorescence dual-mode sensing of glucose based on carbon quantum dots and potential UV\/fluorescence of o-diaminobenzene. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19030674"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1023\/B:JOFL.0000039336.51399.3b","article-title":"Progress in boronic acid-based fluorescent glucose sensors","volume":"14","author":"Fang","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Fluoresc."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5397","DOI":"10.1021\/ac303689j","article-title":"Optimization of a concanavalin A-based glucose sensor using fluorescence anisotropy","volume":"85","author":"Cummins","year":"2013","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1006\/abio.2001.5060","article-title":"Near-infrared fluorescence lifetime assay for serum glucose based on allophycocyanin-labeled concanavalin A","volume":"292","author":"McCartney","year":"2001","journal-title":"Anal. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.1089\/dia.2006.8.288","article-title":"Enzymatic fluorescent microsphere glucose sensors: Evaluation of response under dynamic conditions","volume":"8","author":"Brown","year":"2006","journal-title":"Diabetes Technol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8437","DOI":"10.1021\/acsanm.1c01730","article-title":"Cesium-doped graphene quantum dots as ratiometric fluorescence sensors for blood glucose detection","volume":"4","author":"Wen","year":"2021","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Nano Mater."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cplett.2006.12.052","article-title":"Glucose sensing based on NIR fluorescence of DNA-wrapped single-walled carbon nanotubes","volume":"435","author":"Karachevtsev","year":"2007","journal-title":"Chem. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3637","DOI":"10.1002\/chem.200701871","article-title":"A new nanobiosensor for glucose with high sensitivity and selectivity in serum based on fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) between CdTe quantum dots and Au nanoparticles","volume":"14","author":"Tang","year":"2008","journal-title":"Chem.\u2013Eur. J."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101243","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isci.2020.101243","article-title":"Hydrogel glucose sensor with in vivo stable fluorescence intensity relying on antioxidant enzymes for continuous glucose monitoring","volume":"23","author":"Sawayama","year":"2020","journal-title":"Iscience"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6391","DOI":"10.1039\/c3cc42210k","article-title":"Glucose-triggered release using enzyme-gated mesoporous silica nanoparticles","volume":"49","author":"Aznar","year":"2013","journal-title":"Chem. Commun."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107580","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bej.2020.107580","article-title":"Tunable photoluminescence of carbon dots used for homogeneous glucose sensing assay","volume":"159","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biochem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2413","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-018-0928-7","article-title":"Utilizing hyaluronic acid as a versatile platform for fluorescence resonance energy transfer-based glucose sensing","volume":"410","author":"Ge","year":"2018","journal-title":"Anal. Bioanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2016.12.044","article-title":"Nanostructured biosensor for detecting glucose in tear by applying fluorescence resonance energy transfer quenching mechanism","volume":"91","author":"Chen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6320","DOI":"10.1021\/acssensors.4c02403","article-title":"Fluorescent chemosensors in the creation of a commercially available continuous glucose monitor","volume":"9","author":"Czarnik","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACS Sens."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131067","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2021.131067","article-title":"Wearable fluorescent contact lenses for monitoring glucose via a smartphone","volume":"352","author":"Deng","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4035","DOI":"10.1021\/acsbiomaterials.4c00431","article-title":"Smart contact lens for colorimetric visualization of glucose levels in the body fluid","volume":"10","author":"Seo","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACS Biomater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117493","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trac.2023.117493","article-title":"A comprehensive review on recent advances in fluorescence-based bio-analytes sensing","volume":"171","author":"Mal","year":"2024","journal-title":"TrAC Trends Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"010901","DOI":"10.1117\/1.JBO.29.1.010901","article-title":"Effect of skin color on optical properties and the implications for medical optical technologies: A review","volume":"29","author":"Setchfield","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Opt."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7211","DOI":"10.1021\/ac061238u","article-title":"In vivo glucose measurement by surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy","volume":"78","author":"Stuart","year":"2006","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1777","DOI":"10.1021\/acssensors.0c00444","article-title":"Surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy based biosensor with a microneedle array for minimally invasive in vivo glucose measurements","volume":"5","author":"Ju","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACS Sens."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14269","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.analchem.8b03420","article-title":"Glucose sensing using surface-enhanced Raman-mode constraining","volume":"90","author":"Yang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15738","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-20117-7","article-title":"Plasmon resonance of gold and silver nanoparticle arrays in the Kretschmann (attenuated total reflectance) vs. direct incidence configuration","volume":"12","author":"Borah","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.3109\/17435390.2010.483745","article-title":"Impact of silver nanoparticles on human cells: Effect of particle size","volume":"4","author":"Liu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nanotoxicology"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5003","DOI":"10.2147\/IJN.S115473","article-title":"Silver nanoparticles outperform gold nanoparticles in radiosensitizing U251 cells in vitro and in an intracranial mouse model of glioma","volume":"11","author":"Liu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Nanomed."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1557\/mrs.2014.2","article-title":"Nanogaps for SERS applications","volume":"39","author":"Tong","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mrs Bull."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12645","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.485021","article-title":"Enhancement of the signal-to-noise ratio in fiber-optics based SERS detection by rough-cutting the end surface","volume":"31","author":"Shin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12102","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.22.012102","article-title":"Recovery of Raman spectra with low signal-to-noise ratio using Wiener estimation","volume":"22","author":"Chen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1920","DOI":"10.1021\/acssensors.5c03074","article-title":"Noise Management of Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy Using Two-Dimensional Materials","volume":"11","author":"Ranasinghe","year":"2026","journal-title":"ACS Sens."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1065","DOI":"10.1021\/acssensors.3c01947","article-title":"Technological advances of wearable device for continuous monitoring of in vivo glucose","volume":"9","author":"Huang","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACS Sens."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1241","DOI":"10.1021\/acssensors.2c02635","article-title":"Development of smartphone-controlled and microneedle-based wearable continuous glucose monitoring system for home-care diabetes management","volume":"8","author":"Yang","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACS Sens."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1214","DOI":"10.1038\/s41551-022-00887-1","article-title":"An integrated wearable microneedle array for the continuous monitoring of multiple biomarkers in interstitial fluid","volume":"6","author":"Tehrani","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1209","DOI":"10.1039\/D1BM01834E","article-title":"A theranostic microneedle array patch for integrated glycemia sensing and self-regulated release of insulin","volume":"10","author":"Sun","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biomater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"061102","DOI":"10.1117\/1.JBO.20.6.061102","article-title":"Hollow agarose microneedle with silver coating for intradermal surface-enhanced Raman measurements: A skin-mimicking phantom study","volume":"20","author":"Yuen","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Opt."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2017.08.077","article-title":"Wearable non-invasive epidermal glucose sensors: A review","volume":"177","author":"Kim","year":"2018","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1038\/scientificamerican1191-128","article-title":"Skinside out","volume":"265","author":"Erickson","year":"1991","journal-title":"Sci. Am."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2016.12.007","article-title":"Transdermal reverse iontophoresis: A novel technique for therapeutic drug monitoring","volume":"246","author":"Giri","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Control. Release"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S49","DOI":"10.1002\/dmrr.210","article-title":"Glucose monitoring by reverse iontophoresis","volume":"18","author":"Potts","year":"2002","journal-title":"Diabetes\/Metab. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"621","DOI":"10.1016\/S0956-5663(01)00189-0","article-title":"Clinical evaluation of the GlucoWatch\u00ae biographer: A continual, non-invasive glucose monitor for patients with diabetes","volume":"16","author":"Tierney","year":"2001","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/S1773-2247(09)50015-9","article-title":"Recent advances on transdermal iontophoretic drug delivery and non-invasive sampling","volume":"19","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Drug Deliv. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"722","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.27.3.722","article-title":"Accuracy of the GlucoWatch G2 Biographer and the continuous glucose monitoring system during hypoglycemia: Experience of the Diabetes Research in Children Network","volume":"27","author":"Group","year":"2004","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4625","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1701740114","article-title":"Autonomous sweat extraction and analysis applied to cystic fibrosis and glucose monitoring using a fully integrated wearable platform","volume":"114","author":"Emaminejad","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114026","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2022.114026","article-title":"A touch-actuated glucose sensor fully integrated with microneedle array and reverse iontophoresis for diabetes monitoring","volume":"203","author":"Cheng","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130046","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2021.130046","article-title":"A wearable self-powered biosensor system integrated with diaper for detecting the urine glucose of diabetic patients","volume":"341","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1541","DOI":"10.1038\/s41551-022-00998-9","article-title":"Opportunities and challenges in the diagnostic utility of dermal interstitial fluid","volume":"7","author":"Friedel","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115036","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2022.115036","article-title":"Reverse iontophoresis with the development of flexible electronics: A review","volume":"223","author":"Zheng","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shokrekhodaei, M., and Quinones, S. (2020). Review of non-invasive glucose sensing techniques: Optical, electrical and breath acetone. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20051251"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2263","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.25.12.2263","article-title":"Noninvasive blood glucose monitoring with optical coherence tomography: A pilot study in human subjects","volume":"25","author":"Larin","year":"2002","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"992","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.26.000992","article-title":"Noninvasive monitoring of glucose concentration with optical coherence tomography","volume":"26","author":"Esenaliev","year":"2001","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1098","DOI":"10.1039\/D1SD00030F","article-title":"Recent advances in optical sensors for continuous glucose monitoring","volume":"1","author":"Ahmed","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sens. Diagn."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.1089\/dia.2007.0277","article-title":"Optical coherence tomography-based continuous noninvasive glucose monitoring in patients with diabetes","volume":"10","author":"Gabbay","year":"2008","journal-title":"Diabetes Technol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108821","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optlaseng.2025.108821","article-title":"Three-dimensional correlation method for non-invasive blood glucose monitoring with optical coherence tomography","volume":"186","author":"Su","year":"2025","journal-title":"Opt. Lasers Eng."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"543","DOI":"10.1080\/05704928.2018.1486324","article-title":"A review of optical methods for continuous glucose monitoring","volume":"54","author":"Jernelv","year":"2019","journal-title":"Appl. Spectrosc. Rev."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1021\/ac051036i","article-title":"In vivo near-infrared spectroscopy of rat skin tissue with varying blood glucose levels","volume":"78","author":"Olesberg","year":"2006","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1100","DOI":"10.1177\/00037028221092474","article-title":"In vivo near-infrared noninvasive glucose measurement and detection in humans","volume":"76","author":"Han","year":"2022","journal-title":"Appl. Spectrosc."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1423","DOI":"10.1366\/000370206779321508","article-title":"Noninvasive near-infrared blood glucose monitoring using a calibration model built by a numerical simulation method: Trial application to patients in an intensive care unit","volume":"60","author":"Maruo","year":"2006","journal-title":"Appl. Spectrosc."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cano-Garcia, H., Kshirsagar, R., Pricci, R., Teyeb, A., O\u2019brien, F., Saha, S., Kosmas, P., and Kallos, E. (2021). Enhancing the accuracy of non-invasive glucose sensing in aqueous solutions using combined millimeter wave and near infrared transmission. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21093275"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1769","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-05570-8","article-title":"Non-invasively accuracy enhanced blood glucose sensor using shallow dense neural networks with NIR monitoring and medical features","volume":"12","author":"Srichan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73029","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3079182","article-title":"Non-invasive glucose monitoring using optical sensor and machine learning techniques for diabetes applications","volume":"9","author":"Shokrekhodaei","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4453","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2019.2962251","article-title":"Differential continuous wave photoacoustic spectroscopy for non-invasive glucose monitoring","volume":"20","author":"Tanaka","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12980","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-69547-1","article-title":"Non-invasive continuous-time glucose monitoring system using a chipless printable sensor based on split ring microwave resonators","volume":"10","author":"Baghelani","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/j.medengphy.2017.01.008","article-title":"Characterization of micro-resonator based on enhanced metal insulator semiconductor capacitor for glucose recognition","volume":"41","author":"Dhakal","year":"2017","journal-title":"Med. Eng. Phys."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kumar, A., Wang, C., Meng, F.-Y., Zhou, Z.-L., Zhao, M., Yan, G.-F., Kim, E.-S., and Kim, N.-Y. (2020). High-sensitivity, quantified, linear and mediator-free resonator-based microwave biosensor for glucose detection. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20144024"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jang, C., Lee, H.-J., and Yook, J.-G. (2021). Radio-frequency biosensors for real-time and continuous glucose detection. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21051843"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaap9841","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.aap9841","article-title":"Soft, smart contact lenses with integrations of wireless circuits, glucose sensors, and displays","volume":"4","author":"Park","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1546","DOI":"10.1177\/19322968241252819","article-title":"Using artificial intelligence to improve the accuracy of a wrist-worn, noninvasive glucose monitor: A pilot study","volume":"19","author":"Qureshi","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11780","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.analchem.8b02838","article-title":"Point-of-care diagnoses: Flexible patterning technique for self-powered wearable sensors","volume":"90","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1023\/B:JOFL.0000039339.36839.19","article-title":"Current problems and potential techniques in in vivo glucose monitoring","volume":"14","author":"Wickramasinghe","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Fluoresc."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0925-4005(97)80191-8","article-title":"ISFET glucose sensor based on a new principle using the electrolysis of hydrogen peroxide","volume":"40","author":"Seo","year":"1997","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1016\/S0925-4005(01)01049-8","article-title":"ISFET glucose sensor system with fast recovery characteristics by employing electrolysis","volume":"83","author":"Park","year":"2002","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125647","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2024.125647","article-title":"Highly sensitive SERS sensors for glucose detection based on enzyme@ MOFs and ratiometric Raman","volume":"271","author":"Sun","year":"2024","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"470","DOI":"10.1177\/193229680700100404","article-title":"Prediction capability of optical coherence tomography for blood glucose concentration monitoring","volume":"1","author":"Kuranov","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kuranov, R., Prough, D., Sapozhnikova, V., Cicenaite, I., and Esenaliev, R. (2005). In vivo application of 2-D lateral scanning mode optical coherence tomography for glucose sensing. Smart Medical and Biomedical Sensor Technology III, SPIE.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.630840"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3885","DOI":"10.1088\/0031-9155\/51\/16\/001","article-title":"In vivo study of glucose-induced changes in skin properties assessed with optical coherence tomography","volume":"51","author":"Kuranov","year":"2006","journal-title":"Phys. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aloraynan, A., Rassel, S., Xu, C., and Ban, D. (2022). A single wavelength mid-infrared photoacoustic spectroscopy for noninvasive glucose detection using machine learning. Biosensors, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/bios12030166"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8254","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-65103-z","article-title":"Tear glucose measurement by reflectance spectrum of a nanoparticle embedded contact lens","volume":"10","author":"Kim","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2100207","DOI":"10.1002\/elsa.202100207","article-title":"ISFET-based sensors for (bio) chemical applications: A review","volume":"3","author":"Cao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Electrochem. Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10554","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.9b00010","article-title":"Glucose oxidase-instructed fluorescence amplification strategy for intracellular glucose detection","volume":"11","author":"Jiang","year":"2019","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, S., Zeng, J., Wang, C., Feng, L., Song, Z., Zhao, W., Wang, Q., and Liu, C. (2021). The application of wearable glucose sensors in point-of-care testing. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2021.774210"},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e22870","DOI":"10.1002\/jcla.22870","article-title":"Semiquantitative, fully automated urine test strip analysis","volume":"33","author":"Oyaert","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clin. Lab. Anal."},{"key":"ref_134","first-page":"290","article-title":"Artificial intelligence biosensors for continuous glucose monitoring","volume":"2","author":"Jin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Interdiscip. Mater."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"342825","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aca.2024.342825","article-title":"Improved glucose detection limit based on phosphorescence from protected metalloporphyrin triplet state","volume":"1315","author":"Zang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.7150\/thno.64035","article-title":"Glucose biosensors in clinical practice: Principles, limits and perspectives of currently used devices","volume":"12","author":"Pullano","year":"2022","journal-title":"Theranostics"}],"container-title":["Biosensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6374\/16\/9\/525\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T04:42:59Z","timestamp":1790138579000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-6374\/16\/9\/525"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,20]]},"references-count":136,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["bios16090525"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/bios16090525","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-6374"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-6374","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,20]]}}}