{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]],"date-time":"2026-10-07T01:35:07Z","timestamp":1791336907341,"version":"4.3.1"},"reference-count":105,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,3,17]],"date-time":"2020-03-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1584403200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Attention deficit\/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is often associated with frontal executive impairment in children. Oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) and anxiety disorders (AD) frequently accompany ADHD, but the impact of these comorbid disorders on cognition remains elusive. The five-point test (FPT), a design fluency task, has been shown to be sensitive to neurological damage, specifically to frontal lobe lesions in patients with brain injuries. The purpose of this study was to compare the performances of neurotypical children with that of children with ADHD, ADHD-ODD, and ADHD-AD on the FPT in order to examine whether these groups could be distinguished from one another based on their cognitive profile. Methods: A total of 111 children aged 8 to 11 years old participated in the study. Six measures from the FPT were used to characterize their performance. Results: Statistically significant differences between groups were observed for five of the six FPT measures. Essentially, children with ADHD-ODD made more repeated designs than the three other groups (control p &gt; 0.001, ADHD p = 0.008, ADHD-AD p = 0.008), while children with ADHD-AD produced fewer total and correct designs than the control and ADHD groups (p = 0.009). Conclusions: This suggests that comorbidities have an additive impact on the cognitive profile of children with ADHD. Design fluency may be a sensitive measure for capturing the subtle cognitive deficits that are likely to be involved in these disorders.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci10030172","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,3,17]],"date-time":"2020-03-17T09:27:41Z","timestamp":1584437261000},"page":"172","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Design Fluency in Children with ADHD and Comorbid Disorders"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Ana\u00efs","family":"Fournier","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, University of Sherbrooke, Longueuil, QC J4K 0A8, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4958-7813","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bruno","family":"Gauthier","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, University of Montreal, Laval Campus, Laval, QC H7N 0B6, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marie-Claude","family":"Guay","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, University of Quebec in Montreal, Montreal, QC H3C 3P8, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"V\u00e9ronique","family":"Parent","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, University of Sherbrooke, Longueuil, QC J4K 0A8, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,3,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, American Psychiatric Association. [5th ed.].","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.books.9780890425596"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.121.1.65","article-title":"Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: Constructing a unifying theory of adhd","volume":"121","author":"Barkley","year":"1997","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barkley, R.A. (2012). Executive Functioning and Self-Regulation: Extended Phenotype, Synthesis, and Clinical Implications, Guilford Publications.","DOI":"10.1521\/adhd.2012.20.2.1"},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Barkley, R.A. (2014). Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: A Handbook for Diagnosis and Treatment, Guilford Publications."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1475-3588.2009.00536.x","article-title":"The diagnostic utility of executive function assessments in the identification of adhd in children","volume":"15","author":"Holmes","year":"2010","journal-title":"Child Adolesc. Ment. Health"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"646","DOI":"10.1177\/1087054710370935","article-title":"Executive dysfunction in school-age children with adhd","volume":"15","author":"Lambek","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Atten. Disord."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-4328(01)00430-2","article-title":"How specific is a deficit of executive functioning for attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder?","volume":"130","author":"Sergeant","year":"2002","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2006.01.011","article-title":"Characterizing cognition in adhd: Beyond executive dysfunction","volume":"10","author":"Castellanos","year":"2006","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1989","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291713002547","article-title":"A comprehensive assessment of memory, delay aversion, timing, inhibition, decision making and variability in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Advancing beyond the three-pathway models","volume":"44","author":"Coghill","year":"2014","journal-title":"Psychol. Med."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Nigg, J.T. (2006). What Causes Adhd? Understanding What Goes Wrong and Why, Guilford Press."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1224","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2004.08.025","article-title":"Causal heterogeneity in attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder: Do we need neuropsychologically impaired subtypes?","volume":"57","author":"Nigg","year":"2005","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Molfese, D.G.D.L. (2005). The neuropsychology of adhd: Validity of the executive function hypothesis. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: From Genes to Animal Models to Patients, Human."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.1007\/s10802-008-9286-9","article-title":"Heterogeneity in adhd: Neuropsychological pathways, comorbidity and symptom domains","volume":"37","author":"Thorell","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Abnorm. Child Psychol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"653","DOI":"10.1016\/0028-3932(77)90070-7","article-title":"Design fluency: The invention of nonsense drawings after focal cortical lesions","volume":"15","author":"Milner","year":"1977","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Strauss, E., Sherman, E.M., and Spreen, O. (2006). A Compendium of Neuropsychological Tests: Administration, Norms, and Commentary, American Chemical Society."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Delis, D.C., Kaplan, E., and Kramer, J.H. (2001). D-Kefs: Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System, Psychological Corporation.","DOI":"10.1037\/t15082-000"},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Lezak, M.D. (2004). Neuropsychological Assessment, Oxford University Press."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Ruff, R.M. (1996). Ruff Figural Fluency Test: Professional Manual, Psychological Assessment Resources."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1080\/09297049.2014.988607","article-title":"Unique designs, errors and strategies in the five-point test: The contribution of age, phonemic fluency and visuospatial abilities in italian children aged 6\u201311 years","volume":"22","author":"Stievano","year":"2016","journal-title":"Child Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"839","DOI":"10.2466\/pms.1982.55.3.839","article-title":"Children\u2019s production on verbal and non-verbal fluency tasks","volume":"55","author":"Regard","year":"1982","journal-title":"Percept. Mot. Skills"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1080\/13854049708407030","article-title":"Sensitivity of figural fluency on the five-point test to focal neurological dysfunction","volume":"11","author":"Lee","year":"1997","journal-title":"Clin. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.3109\/10401239709147778","article-title":"High-resolution brain spect imaging in adhd","volume":"9","author":"Amen","year":"1997","journal-title":"Ann. Clin. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"858","DOI":"10.1097\/00004583-199407000-00012","article-title":"Reduced brain metabolism in hyperactive girls","volume":"33","author":"Ernst","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1105","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.55.12.1105","article-title":"Functional brain electrical activity mapping in boys with attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder","volume":"55","author":"Silberstein","year":"1998","journal-title":"Arch. Gen. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1251","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7610.2007.01799.x","article-title":"Structural brain abnormalities in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder and patients with attention deficit\/hyperactivity disorder","volume":"48","author":"Brieber","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1168","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2011.03.022","article-title":"Atypical prefrontal connectivity in attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder: Pathway to disease or pathological end point?","volume":"69","author":"Liston","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1067","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.162.6.1067","article-title":"Abnormal brain activation during inhibition and error detection in medication-naive adolescents with adhd","volume":"162","author":"Rubia","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"310","DOI":"10.1016\/S2215-0366(17)30049-4","article-title":"Subcortical brain volume differences in participants with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children and adults: A cross-sectional mega-analysis","volume":"4","author":"Hoogman","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1177\/000992289703600702","article-title":"Toward a pathophysiology of attention-deficit\/hyperactivint disorder","volume":"36","author":"Castellanos","year":"1997","journal-title":"Clin. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1017\/S1355617718000103","article-title":"Anomalous brain development is evident in preschoolers with attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder","volume":"24","author":"Jacobson","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hunter, S.J., and Sparrow, E.P. (2012). The neurobiology of executive functions. Executive Function and Dysfunction Identification, Assessment and Treatment, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511977954"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"759","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinph.2018.01.010","article-title":"Right prefrontal cortex specialization for visuospatial working memory and developmental alterations in prefrontal cortex recruitment in school-age children","volume":"129","author":"Suzuki","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"540","DOI":"10.1097\/00004583-199007000-00006","article-title":"Performance of children with adhd on tests sensitive to frontal lobe dysfunction","volume":"29","author":"Loge","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1111\/jpr.12005","article-title":"Neuropsychological functioning in children with adhd: Symptom persistence is linked to poorer performance on measures of executive and nonexecutive function","volume":"55","author":"Robinson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Jpn. Psychol. Res."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"348","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nrl.2012.06.011","article-title":"Evaluaci\u00f3n de la funci\u00f3n ejecutiva en una poblaci\u00f3n escolar con s\u00edntomas de d\u00e9ficit de atenci\u00f3n e hiperactividad","volume":"28","author":"Zamora","year":"2013","journal-title":"Neurolog\u00eda"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.1080\/09297049.2014.988606","article-title":"Exploring the dynamics of design fluency in children with and without adhd using artificial neural networks","volume":"22","author":"Gauthier","year":"2016","journal-title":"Child Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1215","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2004.10.020","article-title":"Attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder: A selective overview","volume":"11","author":"Biederman","year":"2005","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1186\/1753-2000-2-15","article-title":"Adhd characteristics: I. Concurrent co-morbidity patterns in children & adolescents","volume":"2","author":"Elia","year":"2008","journal-title":"Child Adolesc. Psychiatry Ment. Health"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"692","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cpr.2007.10.003","article-title":"Attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder and social dysfunctioning","volume":"28","author":"Nijmeijer","year":"2008","journal-title":"Clin. Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2010-0165","article-title":"Patterns of comorbidity, functioning, and service use for us children with adhd, 2007","volume":"127","author":"Larson","year":"2011","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Brown, T.E. (2009). Adhd with anxiety disorders. Adhd Comorbidities: Handbook for Adhd Complications in Children and Adults, American Psychiatric Publishing."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"621","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jecp.2010.09.008","article-title":"Development of hot and cool executive function during the transition to adolescence","volume":"108","author":"Prencipe","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Exp. Child Psychol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e69","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2010.09.023","article-title":"\u201cCool\u201d inferior frontostriatal dysfunction in attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder versus \u201chot\u201d ventromedial orbitofrontal-limbic dysfunction in conduct disorder: A review","volume":"69","author":"Rubia","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.3389\/neuro.08.035.2009","article-title":"Neuroimaging of aggressive and violent behaviour in children and adolescents","volume":"3","author":"Sterzer","year":"2009","journal-title":"Front. Behav. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pscychresns.2009.03.012","article-title":"Prefrontal structural and functional brain imaging findings in antisocial, violent, and psychopathic individuals: A meta-analysis","volume":"174","author":"Yang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res. Neuroimaging"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1145","DOI":"10.1017\/S0954579408000540","article-title":"The development of antisocial behavior: What can we learn from functional neuroimaging studies?","volume":"20","author":"Crowe","year":"2008","journal-title":"Dev. Psychopathol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2011.11.008","article-title":"The psychopath magnetized: Insights from brain imaging","volume":"16","author":"Anderson","year":"2012","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"745","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2010.09.028","article-title":"Abnormal structure or function of the amygdala is a common component of neurodevelopmental disorders","volume":"49","author":"Schumann","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.3389\/fncom.2013.00174","article-title":"Exploring the cognitive and motor functions of the basal ganglia: An integrative review of computational cognitive neuroscience models","volume":"7","author":"Helie","year":"2013","journal-title":"Front. Comput. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6296","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.6421-10.2011","article-title":"Human dorsal striatal activity during choice discriminates reinforcement learning behavior from the gambler\u2019s fallacy","volume":"31","author":"Jessup","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2006.03.015","article-title":"When the brain loses its self: Prefrontal inactivation during sensorimotor processing","volume":"50","author":"Goldberg","year":"2006","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Passamonti, L., Fairchild, G., Fornito, A., Goodyer, I.M., Nimmo-Smith, I., Hagan, C.C., and Calder, A.J. (2012). Abnormal anatomical connectivity between the amygdala and orbitofrontal cortex in conduct disorder. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0048789"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"786","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn3577","article-title":"The neurobiology of psychopathic traits in youths","volume":"14","author":"Blair","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1275","DOI":"10.1097\/00004583-200211000-00009","article-title":"Oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder: A review of the past 10 years, part II","volume":"41","author":"Burke","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1007\/s10567-013-0159-6","article-title":"Antisocial behavior, psychopathic features and abnormalities in reward and punishment processing in youth","volume":"17","author":"Byrd","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Child Fam. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1007\/s11065-010-9151-9","article-title":"Anatomic magnetic resonance imaging of the developing child and adolescent brain and effects of genetic variation","volume":"20","author":"Giedd","year":"2010","journal-title":"Neuropsychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1035","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7610.2011.02454.x","article-title":"Investigation of cool and hot executive function in odd\/cd independently of adhd","volume":"52","author":"Hobson","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1080\/87565641.2010.549980","article-title":"Contributions of hot and cool self-regulation to preschool disruptive behavior and academic achievement","volume":"36","author":"Willoughby","year":"2011","journal-title":"Dev. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1123","DOI":"10.1007\/s10802-009-9334-0","article-title":"Inhibition, reinforcement sensitivity and temporal information processing in adhd and adhd+ odd: Evidence of a separate entity?","volume":"37","author":"Luman","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Abnorm. Child Psychol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1007\/s11065-015-9315-8","article-title":"A systematic review and meta-analysis of neuroimaging in oppositional defiant disorder (odd) and conduct disorder (cd) taking attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (adhd) into account","volume":"26","author":"Noordermeer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neuropsychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"352","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8986.2007.00518.x","article-title":"Specificity of regional brain activity in anxiety types during emotion processing","volume":"44","author":"Engels","year":"2007","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"628","DOI":"10.1111\/1469-8986.3650628","article-title":"Contrasting patterns of brain activity in anxious apprehension and anxious arousal","volume":"36","author":"Nitschke","year":"1999","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"851","DOI":"10.1002\/da.22243","article-title":"Focal and aberrant prefrontal engagement during emotion regulation in veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder","volume":"31","author":"Rabinak","year":"2014","journal-title":"Depress. Anxiety"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1475","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291712002383","article-title":"Prefrontal dysfunction during emotion regulation in generalized anxiety and panic disorders","volume":"43","author":"Ball","year":"2013","journal-title":"Psychol. Med."},{"key":"ref_65","first-page":"115","article-title":"Neural circuits in anxiety and stress disorders: A focused review","volume":"11","author":"Duval","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ther. Clin. Risk Manag."},{"key":"ref_66","unstructured":"Pliszka, S.R., Carlson, C.L., and Swanson, J.M. (1999). Adhd with Comorbid Disorders: Clinical Assessment and Management, Guilford Press."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1177\/1087054706286698","article-title":"Adhd with comorbid anxiety: A review of the current literature","volume":"10","author":"Schatz","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Atten. Disord."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"340","DOI":"10.1007\/s10567-018-0255-8","article-title":"Is clinical anxiety a risk or a protective factor for executive functioning in youth with adhd? A meta-regression analysis","volume":"21","author":"Maric","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Child Fam. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"American Psychiatric Association (2000). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, American Psychiatric Association. [4th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"DuPaul, G.J., Power, T.J., Anastopoulos, A.D., and Reid, R. (1998). Adhd Rating Scale IV: Checklists, Norms, and Clinical Interpretation, Guilford Press.","DOI":"10.1037\/t00680-000"},{"key":"ref_71","unstructured":"Achenbach, T.M., and Rescorla, L. (2001). Manual for the Aseba School-Age Forms and Profiles, University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth, and Families."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1080\/09297040903049061","article-title":"Effect of drawing hand and age on figural fluency: A graphomotor study with the five-point test in children","volume":"16","author":"Albert","year":"2009","journal-title":"Child Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1207\/S15326942DN2001_6","article-title":"Differential development of attention and executive functions in 3-to 12-year-old finnish children","volume":"20","author":"Klenberg","year":"2001","journal-title":"Dev. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1207\/S15326942DN2001_2","article-title":"Effects of age on neurocognitive measures of children ages 5 to 12: A cross-sectional study on 800 children from the united states","volume":"20","author":"Korkman","year":"2001","journal-title":"Dev. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1080\/87565649109540499","article-title":"Developmental changes in performance on tests of purported frontal lobe functioning","volume":"7","author":"Levin","year":"1991","journal-title":"Dev. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1005","DOI":"10.1080\/13803395.2011.589509","article-title":"Animal verbal fluency and design fluency in school-aged children: Effects of age, sex, and mean level of parental education, and regression-based normative data","volume":"33","author":"Hurks","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"615","DOI":"10.1076\/jcen.24.5.615.1001","article-title":"Normative data for neuropsychological measures of fluency, attention, and memory measures for hong kong chinese","volume":"24","author":"Lee","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"969","DOI":"10.1016\/j.acn.2007.08.001","article-title":"The relationship of intelligence to executive function and non-executive function measures in a sample of average, above average, and gifted youth","volume":"22","author":"Arffa","year":"2007","journal-title":"Arch. Clin. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"699","DOI":"10.2466\/pms.1985.61.3.699","article-title":"Verbal fluency and figural fluency in bright children","volume":"61","author":"Evans","year":"1985","journal-title":"Percept. Mot. Skills"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1093\/biomet\/58.1.105","article-title":"The effect of nonnormality on some multivariate tests and robustness to nonnormality in the linear model","volume":"58","author":"Mardia","year":"1971","journal-title":"Biometrika"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7610.1991.tb00323.x","article-title":"Response perseveration and delayed responding in childhood behavior disorders","volume":"32","author":"Daugherty","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"362","DOI":"10.1007\/s00787-004-0395-x","article-title":"Response perseveration and sensitivity to reward and punishment in boys with oppositional defiant disorder","volume":"13","author":"Matthys","year":"2004","journal-title":"Eur. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"885","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn2753","article-title":"A new perspective on the role of the orbitofrontal cortex in adaptive behaviour","volume":"10","author":"Schoenbaum","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_84","unstructured":"Aggleton, J.P. (2000). Connectivity of the rat amygdaloid complex. The Amygdala: A Functional Analysis, Oxford University Press."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"468","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2004.06.006","article-title":"Putting a spin on the dorsal\u2013ventral divide of the striatum","volume":"27","author":"Voorn","year":"2004","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"666","DOI":"10.1016\/S0006-3223(97)00355-7","article-title":"Cognitive frontal lobe dysfunction in obsessive-compulsive disorder","volume":"43","author":"Schmidtke","year":"1998","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"549","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psc.2009.05.004","article-title":"The neurobiology of anxiety disorders: Brain imaging, genetics, and psychoneuroendocrinology","volume":"32","author":"Martin","year":"2009","journal-title":"Psychiatr. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1080\/02699939208409696","article-title":"Anxiety and performance: The processing efficiency theory","volume":"6","author":"Eysenck","year":"1992","journal-title":"Cogn. Emot."},{"key":"ref_89","unstructured":"Quay, H.C. (1988). Attention deficit disorder and the behavioral inhibition system: The relevance of the neuropsychological theory of jeffrey a. Gray. Attention Deficit Disorder: Criteria, Cognition, Intervention, Pergamon Press."},{"key":"ref_90","unstructured":"Bloomingdale, J.A. (1988). The behavioral reward and inhibition system in childhood behavior disorder. Attention Deficit Disorder, Pergamon Press."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1025799122529","article-title":"Inhibition and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder","volume":"25","author":"Quay","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Abnorm. Child Psychol."},{"key":"ref_92","unstructured":"Gray, J.A. (1987). The Psychology of Fear and Stress, Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"ref_93","unstructured":"Fabio, R.A. (2017). The study of automatic and controlled processes in adhd: A reread and a new proposal. Mediterr. J. Clin. Psychol., 5."},{"key":"ref_94","unstructured":"Martino, G., Capr\u00ec, T., Castriciano, C., and Fabio, R.A. (2017). Automatic deficits can lead to executive deficits in adhd. Mediterr. J. Clin. Psychol., 5."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"771","DOI":"10.1177\/1087054712459562","article-title":"Adhd: Auditory and visual stimuli in automatic and controlled processes","volume":"19","author":"Fabio","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Atten. Disord."},{"key":"ref_96","first-page":"345","article-title":"Beyond the dual pathway model: Evidence for the dissociation of timing, inhibitory, and delay-related impairments in attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder","volume":"49","author":"Bitsakou","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_97","unstructured":"Brown, T.E. (2017). Outside the Box: Rethinking Add\/Adhd in Children and Adults: A Practical Guide, American Psychiatric Publications."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kelso, J.A.S. (2003). Cognitive coordination dynamics. The Dynamical Systems Approach to Cognition: Concepts and Empirical Paradigms Based on Self-Organization, Embodiment, and Coordination Dynamics, World Scientific Publishing.","DOI":"10.1142\/9789812564399_0003"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5180","DOI":"10.2174\/1381612819666140110115227","article-title":"Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and n-methyl-d-aspartate (nmda) dysregulation","volume":"20","author":"Lane","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr. Pharm. Des."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"592","DOI":"10.1017\/S0140525X04260137","article-title":"Autism and schizophrenia: Similar perceptual consequence, different neurobiological etiology?","volume":"27","author":"Bertone","year":"2004","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Sci."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1017\/S0140525X03000025","article-title":"Convergence of biological and psychological perspectives on cognitive coordination in schizophrenia","volume":"26","author":"Phillips","year":"2003","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Sci."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"571","DOI":"10.1207\/s15326942dn2602_3","article-title":"Executive functions in children aged 6 to 13: A dimensional and developmental study","volume":"26","author":"Brocki","year":"2004","journal-title":"Dev. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"620","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2008.11.030","article-title":"A magnetic resonance imaging study of the cerebellar vermis in chronically treated and treatment-naive children with attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder combined type","volume":"65","author":"Bledsoe","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1740","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.288.14.1740","article-title":"Developmental trajectories of brain volume abnormalities in children and adolescents with attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder","volume":"288","author":"Castellanos","year":"2002","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"902","DOI":"10.4088\/JCP.12r08287","article-title":"Effect of psychostimulants on brain structure and function in adhd: A qualitative literature review of mri-based neuroimaging studies","volume":"74","author":"Spencer","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Clin. Psychiatry"}],"container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3425\/10\/3\/172\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T09:07:23Z","timestamp":1760173643000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3425\/10\/3\/172"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,3,17]]},"references-count":105,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,3]]}},"alternative-id":["brainsci10030172"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/brainsci10030172","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-3425"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-3425","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,3,17]]}}}