{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,5]],"date-time":"2026-07-05T14:05:26Z","timestamp":1783260326748,"version":"3.54.6"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,11]],"date-time":"2020-11-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1605052800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100010198","name":"Ministerio de Econom\u00eda, Industria y Competitividad, Gobierno de Espa\u00f1a","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["RYC-2016-20471"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RYC-2016-20471"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100010198","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Children with specific learning disorders have been associated with oculomotor problems, with their analysis even suggested to be a potential diagnostic tool. A prospective non-randomized comparative study evaluating 59 children (6\u201313 years old) divided into three groups was conducted: a control group (CG) including 15 healthy emmetropic children; a group of 18 healthy children with oculomotor abnormalities (OAG); and a group of 26 children diagnosed with specific learning disorders (LDG). In all groups, besides a complete eye exam, oculomotricity was characterized with two clinical tests: Northeastern State University College of Optometry\u2019s Oculomotor (NSUCO) and Developmental Eye Movement (DEM) tests. Concerning the NSUCO test, lower ability, precision, and head\/body movement associated scorings were obtained for both smooth pursuits and saccades in OAG and LDG when compared to the CG (p &lt; 0.001). Likewise, significantly longer time needed to read the horizontal sheet of the DEM test and a higher DEM ratio were found in OAG and LDG compared to CG (p \u2264 0.003). No differences between LDG and OAG were found in the performance with the two oculomotor tests (p \u2265 0.141). Oculomotor anomalies can be present in children with and without specific learning disorders, and therefore cannot be used as diagnostic criteria of these type of disorders.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci10110836","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,11]],"date-time":"2020-11-11T19:08:28Z","timestamp":1605121708000},"page":"836","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Clinical Characterization of Oculomotricity in Children with and without Specific Learning Disorders"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Carmen","family":"Bilbao","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Optometry, Policl\u00ednica Alto Arag\u00f3n, 22003 Huesca, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1546-4807","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David P.","family":"Pi\u00f1ero","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Group of Optics and Visual Perception, Department of Optics, Pharmacology and Anatomy, University of Alicante, 03690 San Vicente del Raspeig-Alicante, Spain"},{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Vithas Medimar International Hospital, 03016 Alicante, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1152\/ajplegacy.1903.8.4.307","article-title":"Five types of eye movement in the horizontal meridian plane of the field of regard","volume":"8","author":"Dodge","year":"1903","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Content"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1097\/WCO.0000000000000514","article-title":"Central control of eye movements","volume":"31","author":"Lueck","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optom.2020.06.001","article-title":"Oculomotor dysfunctions: Evidence-based practice","volume":"13","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Optom."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Purves, D., Augustine, G.J., Fitzpatrick, D., Katz, L.C., LaMantia, A.S., McNamara, J.O., and Williams, S.M. (2001). Types of eye movements and their functions. Neuroscience, Sinauer Associates. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0038-1666818","article-title":"Oculomotor assessment in children","volume":"39","author":"Doettl","year":"2018","journal-title":"Semin. Hear."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1038\/nrneurol.2012.273","article-title":"Eye movements in patients with neurodegenerative disorders","volume":"9","author":"Anderson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Seassau, M., and Bucci, M.P. (2013). Reading and visual search: A developmental study in normal children. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnint.2014.00085"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2015.00046","article-title":"Effects of aging on eye movements in the real world","volume":"9","author":"Dowiasch","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2134","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinph.2010.05.003","article-title":"Oculomotor deficits caused by 0.06% and 0.10% blood alcohol concentrations and relationship to subjective perception of drunkenness","volume":"121","author":"Fransson","year":"2010","journal-title":"Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-005-2235-8","article-title":"Effects of diazepam on the latency of saccades for luminance and binocular disparity defined stimuli","volume":"163","author":"Wang","year":"2005","journal-title":"Exp. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"658243","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/658243","article-title":"Alterations of eye movement control in neurodegenerative movement disorders","volume":"2014","author":"Gorges","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4643","DOI":"10.1113\/JP277779","article-title":"Distinct pattern of oculomotor impairment associated with acute sleep loss and circadian misalignment","volume":"597","author":"Stone","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01127","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2019.e01127","article-title":"Visualization and quantification of eye tracking data for the evaluation of oculomotor function","volume":"5","author":"Blignaut","year":"2019","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1149","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.2000.84.3.1149","article-title":"Similarity in the response of smooth pursuit and manual tracking to a change in the direction of target motion","volume":"84","author":"Engel","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-510X(92)90136-9","article-title":"Smooth-pursuit eye movements: Alterations in Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"112","author":"Zaccara","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"597","DOI":"10.1111\/cxo.13024","article-title":"Diagnosis of oculomotor anomalies in children with learning disorders","volume":"103","author":"Bilbao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Optom."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"749","DOI":"10.1097\/CHI.0b013e3181a565f1","article-title":"Oculomotor anomalies in attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder: Evidence for deficits in response preparation and inhibition","volume":"48","author":"Mahone","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1097\/CHI.0b013e31819996da","article-title":"Oculomotor performance identifies underlying cognitive deficits in attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder","volume":"48","author":"Loe","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1007\/s00417-007-0723-1","article-title":"Poor binocular coordination of saccades in dyslexic children","volume":"246","author":"Bucci","year":"2008","journal-title":"Graefes Arch. Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"931","DOI":"10.1007\/s00417-006-0490-4","article-title":"Evidence for frequent divergence impairment in french dyslexic children: Deficit of convergence relaxation or of divergence per se?","volume":"245","author":"Kapoula","year":"2007","journal-title":"Graefes Arch. Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1177\/002221948702000207","article-title":"A new definition of learning disabilities","volume":"20","author":"Hammill","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Learn. Disabil."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1243","DOI":"10.1007\/s00417-009-1076-8","article-title":"Relationship between oculomotor scanning determined by the DEM test and a contextual reading test in schoolchildren with reading difficulties","volume":"247","author":"Puell","year":"2009","journal-title":"Graefes Arch. Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"902","DOI":"10.1097\/00006324-199512000-00009","article-title":"Do DEM test scores change with respect to the language? Norms for Spanish-speaking population","volume":"72","year":"1995","journal-title":"Optom. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Dominguez, O., and Carugno, P. (2020). Learning Disability, StatPearls Publishing."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12501","DOI":"10.1111\/desc.12501","article-title":"Oculomotor atypicalities in developmental coordination disorder","volume":"21","author":"Sumner","year":"2018","journal-title":"Dev. Sci."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tiadi, A., Seassau, M., Gerard, C.L., and Bucci, M.P. (2016). Differences between dyslexic and non-dyslexic children in the performance of phonological visual-auditory recognition tasks: An eye-tracking study. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0159190"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Matsuo, Y., Watanabe, M., Taniike, M., Mohri, I., Kobashi, S., Tachibana, M., Kobayashi, Y., and Kitamura, Y. (2015). Gap effect abnormalities during a visually guided Pro-Saccade task in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0125573"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4073","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ridd.2013.08.036","article-title":"The effect of visual therapy on the ocular motor control of seven- to eight-year-old children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD)","volume":"34","author":"Coetzee","year":"2013","journal-title":"Res. Dev. Disabil."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2008.10.005","article-title":"Elucidating the component processes involved in dyslexic and non-dyslexic reading fluency: An eye-tracking study","volume":"109","author":"Jones","year":"2008","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1279","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2018.01279","article-title":"The reliability of the DEM test in the clinical environment","volume":"9","author":"Facchin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"549","article-title":"Interrater and test-retest reliability of pursuits and saccades","volume":"59","author":"Maples","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Am. Optom. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"143","article-title":"Northeastern State University College of Optometry\u2019s Oculomotor Norms","volume":"3","author":"Maples","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Behav. Optom."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"101","article-title":"The Adult Developmental Eye Movement Test (A\u2013DEM)","volume":"14","author":"Richman","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Behav. Optom."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.4103\/meajo.MEAJO_71_17","article-title":"Accommodation, convergence, and stereopsis in dyslexic schoolchildren","volume":"25","author":"Feizabadi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Middle East Afr. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Di Noto, P., Uta, S., and De Souza, J.F. (2013). Eye exercises enhance accuracy and letter recognition, but not reaction time, in a modified rapid serial visual presentation task. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0059244"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2013.01.044","article-title":"Action video games make dyslexic children read better","volume":"23","author":"Franceschini","year":"2013","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"516","DOI":"10.1111\/opo.12582","article-title":"Vision and academic performance in primary school children","volume":"38","author":"Wood","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Physiol. Opt."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"740","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1475-1313.2010.00779.x","article-title":"Eye movements and poor reading: Does the Developmental Eye Movement test measure cause or effect?","volume":"30","author":"Medland","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Physiol. Opt."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optm.2005.05.006","article-title":"Developmental Eye Movement Test: Reliability and symptomatology","volume":"76","author":"Tassinari","year":"2005","journal-title":"Optometry"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1097\/OPX.0b013e31820846c0","article-title":"DEM test, visagraph eye movement recordings, and reading ability in children","volume":"88","author":"Webber","year":"2011","journal-title":"Optom. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1507","DOI":"10.1097\/OPX.0b013e318230f03a","article-title":"Reliability of the developmental eye movement test","volume":"88","author":"Orlansky","year":"2011","journal-title":"Optom. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1097\/OPX.0000000000001343","article-title":"Differences in oculomotor function between children with sensory processing disorder and typical development","volume":"96","author":"Walker","year":"2019","journal-title":"Optom. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moiroud, L., Gerard, C.L., Peyre, H., and Bucci, M.P. (2018). Developmental Eye Movement test and dyslexic children: A pilot study with eye movement recordings. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0200907"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"722","DOI":"10.1097\/OPX.0b013e3181a6a4b3","article-title":"Developmental eye movement test: What is it really measuring?","volume":"86","author":"Ayton","year":"2009","journal-title":"Optom. Vis. Sci."}],"container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3425\/10\/11\/836\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T10:31:57Z","timestamp":1760178717000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3425\/10\/11\/836"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,11]]},"references-count":44,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,11]]}},"alternative-id":["brainsci10110836"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/brainsci10110836","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-3425"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-3425","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,11]]}}}