{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,4]],"date-time":"2026-10-04T06:18:15Z","timestamp":1791094695650,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":210,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,27]],"date-time":"2021-05-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1622073600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In a now-classic article published a couple of decades ago (Brain, 2000; 123: 2373\u20132399), I proposed an \u201cextended temporal processing deficit hypothesis of dyslexia\u201d, suggesting that a deficit in temporal processing could explain not only language-related peculiarities usually noticed in dyslexic children, but also a wider range of symptoms related to impaired processing of time in general. In the present review paper, I will revisit this \u201chistorical\u201d hypothesis both in the light of a new clinical perspective, including the central yet poorly explained notion of comorbidity, and also taking a new look at the most recent experimental work, mainly focusing on brain imaging data. First, consistent with daily clinical practice, I propose to distinguish three groups of children who fail to learn to read, of fairly equal occurrence, who share the same initial presentation (difficulty in mastering the rules of grapheme\u2013phoneme correspondence) but with differing associated signs and\/or comorbid conditions (language disorders in the first group, attentional deficits in the second one, and motor coordination problems in the last one), thus suggesting, at least in part, potentially different triggering mechanisms. It is then suggested, in the light of brain imaging information available to date, that the three main clinical presentations\/associations of cognitive impairments that compromise reading skills acquisition correspond to three distinct patterns of miswiring or \u201cdisconnectivity\u201d in specific brain networks which have in common their involvement in the process of learning and their heavy reliance on temporal features of information processing. With reference to the classic temporal processing deficit of dyslexia and to recent evidence of an inability of the dyslexic brain to achieve adequate coupling of oscillatory brain activity to the temporal features of external events, a general model is proposed according to which a common mechanism of temporal uncoupling between various disconnected\u2014and\/or mis-wired\u2014processors may account for distinct forms of specific learning disorders, with reading impairment being a more or less constant feature. Finally, the potential therapeutic implications of such a view are considered, with special emphasis on methods seeking to enhance cross-modal connectivity between separate brain systems, including those using rhythmic and musical training in dyslexic patients.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci11060708","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,27]],"date-time":"2021-05-27T04:30:46Z","timestamp":1622089846000},"page":"708","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":60,"title":["The Neurological Basis of Developmental Dyslexia and Related Disorders: A Reappraisal of the Temporal Hypothesis, Twenty Years on"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Michel","family":"Habib","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, Neurodys Institute, Aix-Marseille University, UMR 7291 Marseille, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2373","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/123.12.2373","article-title":"The neurological basis of developmental dyslexia: An overview and working hypothesis","volume":"123","author":"Habib","year":"2000","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1002\/dys.284","article-title":"The cognitive deficits responsible for developmental dyslexia: Review of evidence for a selective visual attentional disorder","volume":"10","author":"Valdois","year":"2004","journal-title":"Dyslexia"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bandl.2011.12.015","article-title":"Neural dissociation of phonological and visual attention span disorders in developmental dyslexia: FMRI evidence from two case reports","volume":"120","author":"Peyrin","year":"2012","journal-title":"Brain Lang."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1002\/dys.1505","article-title":"Pay Attention!: Sluggish Multisensory Attentional Shifting as a Core Deficit in Developmental Dyslexia","volume":"21","author":"Krause","year":"2015","journal-title":"Dyslexia"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1502","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2019.01502","article-title":"Remediation of Allophonic Perception and Visual Attention Span in Developmental Dyslexia: A Joint Assay","volume":"10","author":"Zoubrinetzky","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cortex.2007.09.005","article-title":"Developmental surface dyslexias","volume":"44","author":"Friedmann","year":"2008","journal-title":"Cortex"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/S0035-3787(08)73295-8","article-title":"The reader brain: Natural and cultural story","volume":"164","author":"Valdois","year":"2008","journal-title":"Rev. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Valdois, S., Guinet, E., and Embs, J.L. (2014). EVADYS: Outil de Diagnostic des Troubles de l\u2019Empan VA., Ortho-Editions. (In French)."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"214","DOI":"10.1080\/02783190802363893","article-title":"Neurodevelopmental variation as a framework for thinking about the twice exceptional","volume":"30","author":"Gilger","year":"2008","journal-title":"Roeper Rev."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2012.12.009","article-title":"The interaction between central and peripheral processes in handwriting production","volume":"127","author":"Roux","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optom.2017.09.003","article-title":"Visual and binocular status in elementary school children with a reading problem","volume":"11","author":"Christian","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Optom."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1016\/j.encep.2017.03.004","article-title":"Computerized oculomotor training in dyslexia: A randomized, crossover clinical trial in pediatric population","volume":"44","author":"Peyre","year":"2018","journal-title":"Encephale"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.3109\/09273972.2012.735335","article-title":"Evaluation of aspects of binocular vision in children with dyslexia","volume":"20","author":"Salkic","year":"2012","journal-title":"Strabismus"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1080\/02643294.2017.1369016","article-title":"Developmental dysgraphia: An overview and framework for research","volume":"34","author":"McCloskey","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cogn. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1080\/02643294.2017.1389706","article-title":"The impact of developmental dyslexia and dysgraphia on movement production during word writing","volume":"34","author":"Kandel","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cogn. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/123.2.291","article-title":"The visual word form area: Spatial and temporal characterization of an initial stage of reading in normal subjects and posterior split-brain patients","volume":"123","author":"Cohen","year":"2000","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"767","DOI":"10.1038\/nn1065","article-title":"Development of neural mechanisms for reading","volume":"6","author":"Turkeltaub","year":"2003","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1735","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2011.02.040","article-title":"Meta-analyzing brain dysfunctions in dyslexic children and adults","volume":"56","author":"Richlan","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"73","article-title":"Neurobiology of dyslexia","volume":"4","author":"Norton","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2165","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1057179","article-title":"Dyslexia: Cultural Diversity and Biological Unity","volume":"291","author":"Paulesu","year":"2001","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1038\/nature02865","article-title":"Biological abnormality of impaired reading is constrained by culture","volume":"431","author":"Siok","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2020.00155","article-title":"The Functional Neuroanatomy of Developmental Dyslexia Across Languages and Writing Systems","volume":"11","author":"Richlan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1451","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(04)16106-0","article-title":"Developmental dyslexia","volume":"363","author":"Demonet","year":"2004","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/bhw348","article-title":"Atypical Structural Asymmetry of the Temporary Planum is Related to Family History of Dyslexia","volume":"28","author":"Vanderauwera","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cereb. Cortex"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1006\/brln.1997.1891","article-title":"Abnormal callosal dyslexics: Relationships to handedness and phonological abilities","volume":"62","author":"Robichon","year":"1998","journal-title":"Brain Lang."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"520","article-title":"The Influence of Language Learning on Brain Morphology: The \u2018\u2018Callosal Effect\u2019\u2019 in Dyslexics Differs According to Native Language","volume":"74","author":"Habib","year":"2000","journal-title":"Brain Lang."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Hugdahl, K., and Davidson, R.J. (2003). Structural correlates of brain asymmetry: Studies in left-handed and dyslexic individuals. The Asymmetrical Brain, MIT Press."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5717","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.22579","article-title":"Planum temporale asymmetry in developmental dyslexia: Revisiting an old question","volume":"35","author":"Altarelli","year":"2014","journal-title":"Hum. Brain Mapp."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Linkersd\u00f6rfer, J., Lonnemann, J., Lindberg, S., Hasselhorn, M., and Fiebach, C.J. (2012). Gray matter alterations co-localize with functional abnormalities in developmental dyslexia: An ALE meta-analysis. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0043122"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"935","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awr363","article-title":"A tractography study in dyslexia: Neuroanatomic correlates of orthographic, phonological and speech processing","volume":"135","author":"Vandermosten","year":"2012","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"2469","article-title":"Development of tract-specific white matter pathways during early reading development in at-risk children and typical controls","volume":"27","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cereb. Cortex"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bandl.2017.05.002","article-title":"White matter pathways mediate parental effects on children\u2019s reading precursors","volume":"173","author":"Vandermosten","year":"2017","journal-title":"Brain Lang."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dcn.2015.05.006","article-title":"A DTI tractography study in pre-readers at risk for dyslexia","volume":"14","author":"Vandermosten","year":"2015","journal-title":"Dev. Cogn. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2009.01.001","article-title":"Pathways to language: Fiber tracts in the human brain","volume":"13","author":"Friederici","year":"2009","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"501","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2014.06.003","article-title":"Dyslexia: Reconciling controversies within an integrative developmental perspective","volume":"18","author":"Boets","year":"2014","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1251","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1244333","article-title":"Intact but less accessible representations in adults with dyslexia","volume":"342","author":"Boets","year":"2013","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1080\/17470210701508822","article-title":"What phonological deficit?","volume":"61","author":"Ramus","year":"2008","journal-title":"Q. J. Exp. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1008950108","article-title":"Neural systems predicting long-term outcome in dyslexia","volume":"108","author":"Hoeft","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2767","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.23206","article-title":"Out-of-synchrony speech entrainment in developmental dyslexia","volume":"37","author":"Molinaro","year":"2016","journal-title":"Hum. Brain Mapp."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2426","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2010.10.002","article-title":"The left occipitotemporal system in reading: Disruption of focal fM,RI connectivity to left inferior frontal and inferior parietal language areas in children with dyslexia","volume":"54","author":"Klaver","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2013.08.031","article-title":"Disruption of functional networks in dyslexia: A whole-brain, data-driven analysis of connectivity","volume":"76","author":"Finn","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2016.09.060","article-title":"Reading in dyslexia across literacy development: A longitudinal study of effective connectivity","volume":"144","author":"Morken","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1186\/s11689-018-9251-z","article-title":"Applying a network framework to the neurobiology of reading and dyslexia","volume":"10","author":"Bailey","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Neurodev. Disord."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bandl.2010.06.005","article-title":"Superior parietal lobule dysfunction in a homogeneous group of dyslexic children with a visual attention span disorder","volume":"118","author":"Peyrin","year":"2011","journal-title":"Brain Lang."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2014.00479","article-title":"Visual processing of multiple elements in the dyslexic brain: Evidence for a superior parietal dysfunction","volume":"8","author":"Lobier","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"F8","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-7687.2010.00983.x","article-title":"Rapid processing of letters, digits and symbols: What purely visual-attentional deficit in developmental dyslexia?","volume":"13","author":"Ziegler","year":"2010","journal-title":"Dev. Sci."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn3836-c2","article-title":"Visual Attention Span Deficits and Assessing Causality in Developmental Dyslexia","volume":"16","author":"Goswami","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cortex.2013.11.006","article-title":"Dyslexia in a French-Spanish bilingual girl: Behavioural and neural modulations following a visual attention span intervention","volume":"53","author":"Valdois","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cortex"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2191","DOI":"10.1007\/s00429-014-0784-y","article-title":"Shared vs. specific brain activation changes in dyslexia after training of phonology, attention, or reading","volume":"220","author":"Heim","year":"2015","journal-title":"Brain Struct. Funct."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nicl.2015.06.010","article-title":"Increased resting-state functional connectivity of visual- and cognitive-control brain networks after training in children with reading difficulties","volume":"8","author":"DiFrancesco","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neuroimage Clin."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1697","DOI":"10.1007\/s00429-013-0595-6","article-title":"Cognitive subtypes of dyslexia are characterized by distinct patterns of grey matter volume","volume":"219","author":"Gawron","year":"2014","journal-title":"Brain Struct. Funct."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.55782\/ane-2008-1674","article-title":"Cognitive subtypes of dyslexia","volume":"68","author":"Heim","year":"2008","journal-title":"Acta Neurobiol. Exp."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1099-0909(199909)5:3<155::AID-DYS143>3.0.CO;2-4","article-title":"Developmental dyslexia: The role of the cerebellum","volume":"5","author":"Nicolson","year":"1999","journal-title":"Dyslexia"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"(2016). The Cerebellum and Neurodevelopmental Disorders. Cerebellum, 15, 34\u201337.","DOI":"10.1007\/s12311-015-0715-3"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cortex.2009.08.016","article-title":"Dyslexia, dysgraphia, procedural learning and the cerebellum","volume":"47","author":"Nicolson","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cortex"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1016\/S0278-2626(03)00121-0","article-title":"Dyslexia: The articulatory hypothesis revisited","volume":"53","author":"Lalain","year":"2003","journal-title":"Brain Cogn."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"508","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-2236(00)01896-8","article-title":"Developmental dyslexia: The cerebellar deficit hypothesis","volume":"24","author":"Nicolson","year":"2001","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_58","first-page":"1","article-title":"Combined auditory and articulatory training improves phonological deficit in children with dyslexia","volume":"22","author":"Mercier","year":"2006","journal-title":"Neuropsychol. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2202-10-67","article-title":"Brain classification reveals the right cerebellum as the best biomarker of dyslexia","volume":"10","author":"Pernet","year":"2009","journal-title":"BMC Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1662","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(98)09165-X","article-title":"Association of abnormal cerebellar activation with motor learning difficulties in dyslexic adults","volume":"353","author":"Nicolson","year":"1999","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2991","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-018-5351-y","article-title":"No evidence for cerebellar abnormality in adults with developmental dyslexia","volume":"236","author":"Goldberg","year":"2018","journal-title":"Exp. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1007\/s12311-012-0407-1","article-title":"Cerebellar function in developmental dyslexia","volume":"12","author":"Stoodley","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cerebellum"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"496","DOI":"10.1007\/s12311-016-0829-2","article-title":"Dyslexic Children Show Atypical Cerebellar Activation and Cerebro-Cerebellar Functional Connectivity in Orthographic and Phonological Processing","volume":"16","author":"Feng","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cerebellum"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"688","DOI":"10.1007\/s12311-019-01024-6","article-title":"Cerebellar Activation During Reading Tasks: Exploring the Dichotomy Between Motor vs. Language Functions in Adults of Varying Reading Proficiency","volume":"18","author":"Cullum","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cerebellum"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bandl.2015.07.006","article-title":"White matter integrity of cerebellar-cortical tracts in reading impaired children: A probabilistic tractography study","volume":"161","author":"Fernandez","year":"2016","journal-title":"Brain Lang."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1007\/s12311-012-0395-1","article-title":"\u201cApraxic dysgraphia\u201d in a 15-year-old left-handed patient: Disruption of the cerebello-cerebral network involved in the planning and execution of graphomotor movements","volume":"12","author":"Wackenier","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cerebellum"},{"key":"ref_67","first-page":"e350","article-title":"Changes in DTI Diffusivity and fMRI Connectivity Cluster Coefficients for Students with and without Specific Learning Disabilities In Written Language: Brain\u2019s Response to Writing Instruction","volume":"3","author":"Richards","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Nat. Sci."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cortex.2018.11.024","article-title":"The impact of spelling regularity on handwriting production: A coupled fMRI and kinematics study","volume":"113","author":"Palmis","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cortex"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2018.05.006","article-title":"Current perspectives on the cerebellum and reading development","volume":"92","author":"Alvarez","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref_70","unstructured":"Marshall, C. (2013). Comorbidity and diagnosis of developmental disorders: What do we know and what do we need to know. Current Issues in Developmental Psychology, Psychology Press."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"671","DOI":"10.1111\/1460-6984.12335","article-title":"Why is it so hard to reach agreement on terminology? The case of developmental language disorder (DLD)","volume":"52","author":"Bishop","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Lang. Commun. Disord."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"858","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.130.6.858","article-title":"Developmental Dyslexia and Specific Language Impairment: Same or different?","volume":"130","author":"Bishop","year":"2004","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1378","DOI":"10.1044\/1092-4388(2005\/096)","article-title":"Are specific language impairment and dyslexia distinct disorders?","volume":"48","author":"Catts","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1111\/1469-7610.00651","article-title":"Is preschool language impairment a risk factor for dyslexia in adolescence?","volume":"41","author":"Snowling","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"701","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2016.06.012","article-title":"Neurobiological Basis of Language Learning Difficulties","volume":"20","author":"Krishnan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"310","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bandl.2011.10.006","article-title":"Co-localisation of abnormal brain structure and function in specific language impairment","volume":"120","author":"Badcock","year":"2012","journal-title":"Brain Lang."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2154","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2013.07.011","article-title":"Abnormal subcortical components of the corticostriatal system in young adults with DLI: A combined structural MRI and DTI study","volume":"51","author":"Lee","year":"2013","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"706","DOI":"10.1111\/dmcn.12714","article-title":"Neural correlates of childhood language disorder: A systematic review","volume":"57","author":"Mayes","year":"2015","journal-title":"Dev. Med. Child Neurol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1007\/s40474-014-0019-1","article-title":"Neural Correlates of Developmental Speech and Language Disorders: Evidence from Neuroimaging","volume":"1","author":"Mayes","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr. Dev. Disord. Rep."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"941","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2006.12.002","article-title":"The neural basis of language development and its impairment","volume":"52","author":"Friederici","year":"2006","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bandl.2015.10.003","article-title":"Structural alterations of the language connectome in children with specific language impairment","volume":"151","author":"Vydrova","year":"2015","journal-title":"Brain Lang."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"973","DOI":"10.1007\/s11682-018-9903-3","article-title":"The mis-wired language network in children with developmental language disorder: Insights from DTI tractography","volume":"13","author":"Verly","year":"2019","journal-title":"Brain Imaging Behav."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2263","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/bhr292","article-title":"Is there a common neuroanatomical substrate of language deficit between autism spectrum disorder and specific language impairment?","volume":"22","author":"Verhoeven","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cereb. Cortex"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2014.01.004","article-title":"Gray-white matter and cerebrospinal fluid volume differences in children with Specific Language Impairment and\/or Reading Disability","volume":"56","author":"Schwartz","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"500","DOI":"10.1177\/0022219413477476","article-title":"Comorbidity between reading disability and math disability: Concurrent psychopathology, functional impairment, and neuropsychological functioning","volume":"46","author":"Willcutt","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Learn. Disabil."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2003.11.004","article-title":"Developmental dyscalculia and basic numerical capacities: A study of 8-9-year-old students","volume":"93","author":"Landerl","year":"2004","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7610.2004.00374.x","article-title":"The development of arithmetical abilities","volume":"46","author":"Butterworth","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"298","DOI":"10.1177\/0022219415620899","article-title":"Comorbidity of Arithmetic and Reading Disorder","volume":"50","author":"Raddatz","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Learn. Disabil."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.1177\/0022219414547221","article-title":"Cognitive Risk Factors for Specific Learning Disorder: Processing Speed, Temporal Processing, and Working Memory","volume":"49","author":"Moll","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Learn. Disabil."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.3389\/neuro.09.051.2009","article-title":"Neuroanatomical correlates of developmental dyscalculia: Combined evidence from morphometry and tractography","volume":"3","author":"Rykhlevskaia","year":"2009","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_91","first-page":"1721","article-title":"Developmental dyscalculia: A dysconnection syndrome?","volume":"219","author":"Kucian","year":"2014","journal-title":"Brain Struct. Funct."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dcn.2017.05.002","article-title":"Arithmetic in the developing brain: A review of brain imaging studies","volume":"30","author":"Peters","year":"2018","journal-title":"Dev. Cogn. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2013.12.030","article-title":"Left fronto-parietal white matter correlates with individual differences in children\u2019s ability to solve additions and multiplications: A tractography study","volume":"90","author":"Lagae","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1337","DOI":"10.1007\/s00429-014-0975-6","article-title":"Plasticity of left perisylvian white-matter tracts is associated with individual differences in math learning","volume":"221","author":"Jolles","year":"2016","journal-title":"Brain Struct. Funct."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.20.3.293","article-title":"Developmental Gerstmann syndrome","volume":"20","author":"Benson","year":"1970","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"654","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.21776","article-title":"A disconnection account of Gerstmann syndrome: Functional neuroanatomy evidence","volume":"66","author":"Rusconi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_97","first-page":"323","article-title":"Les troubles moteurs chez les enfants dyslexiques: Revue de travaux et perspectives","volume":"4","author":"Jover","year":"2013","journal-title":"Enfance"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02648159","article-title":"Comparison of deficits in cognitive and motor skills among children with dyslexia","volume":"44","author":"Nicolson","year":"1994","journal-title":"Ann. Dyslexia"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02648179","article-title":"Impaired performance of children with dyslexia on a range of cerebellar tasks","volume":"46","author":"Fawcett","year":"1996","journal-title":"Ann. Dyslexia"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1177\/002221949903200513","article-title":"Reading and dual-task balancing: Evidence against the automatization deficit explanation of developmental dyslexia","volume":"32","author":"Wimmer","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Learn. Disabil."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1493","DOI":"10.1016\/S0028-3932(03)00078-2","article-title":"On the automaticity\/cerebellar deficit hypothesis of dyslexia: Balancing and continuous rapid naming in dyslexic and ADHD children","volume":"41","author":"Raberger","year":"2003","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"712","DOI":"10.1111\/1469-7610.00157","article-title":"The relationship between motor control and phonology in dyslexic children","volume":"44","author":"Ramus","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"276","DOI":"10.1002\/dys.326","article-title":"Balancing and pointing tasks in dyslexic and control adults","volume":"12","author":"Stoodley","year":"2006","journal-title":"Dyslexia"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"368","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejpn.2007.03.006","article-title":"Motor impairment in dyslexia: The influence of attention disorders","volume":"11","author":"Chaix","year":"2007","journal-title":"Eur. J. Paediatr. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1117","DOI":"10.1111\/dmcn.13530","article-title":"Cognitive and neuroimaging findings in developmental coordination disorder: New insights from a systematic review of recent research","volume":"59","author":"Wilson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Dev. Med. Child Neurol."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2016.00227","article-title":"Neural Signature of DCD: A Critical Review of MRI Neuroimaging Studies","volume":"7","author":"Biotteau","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e201184","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2020.1184","article-title":"Differences in White Matter Microstructure Among Children With Developmental Coordination Disorder","volume":"3","author":"Oberlander","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA Netw. Open"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102309","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nicl.2020.102309","article-title":"Children with developmental coordination disorder show altered functional connectivity compared to peers","volume":"27","author":"Rinat","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neuroimage Clin."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"538","DOI":"10.1177\/0022219411407772","article-title":"The co-occurrence of reading disorder and ADHD: Epidemiology, treatment, psychosocial impact, and economic burden","volume":"45","author":"Sexton","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Learn. Disabil."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.1080\/87565641.2010.494748","article-title":"Comorbidity of ADHD and dyslexia","volume":"35","author":"Gagliano","year":"2010","journal-title":"Dev. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"727","DOI":"10.1007\/s11682-020-00280-z","article-title":"Reduced fine motor competence in children with ADHD is associated with atypical microstructural organization within the superior longitudinal fasciculus","volume":"15","author":"Hyde","year":"2021","journal-title":"Brain Imaging Behav."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1093","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2012.01.003","article-title":"Diffusion tensor imaging in attention deficit\/hyperactivity disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"36","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref_113","first-page":"192","article-title":"A review of attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder from the perspective of brain networks","volume":"7","author":"Xia","year":"2013","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1503\/jpn.140106","article-title":"Altered white matter tract property related to impaired focused attention, sustained attention, cognitive impulsivity and vigilance in attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder","volume":"40","author":"Chiang","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Psychiatry Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.22169","article-title":"White matter tract integrity of frontostriatal circuit in attention deficit hyperactivity disorde: Association with attention performance and symptoms","volume":"35","author":"Wu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Hum. Brain Mapp."},{"key":"ref_116","first-page":"1","article-title":"Resting-state network dysconnectivity in ADHD: A system-neuroscience-based meta-analysis","volume":"29","author":"Sutcubasi","year":"2020","journal-title":"World J. Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/88.2.237","article-title":"Disconnexion syndromes in animals and man. I","volume":"88","author":"Geschwind","year":"1965","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2009.01.065","article-title":"Reduced neural integration of letters and speech sounds links phonological and reading deficits in adult dyslexia","volume":"19","author":"Blau","year":"2009","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"695","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2010.11.003","article-title":"The neural signature of orthographic-phonological binding in successful and failing reading development","volume":"57","author":"Blomert","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1016\/S0304-3940(03)00971-6","article-title":"Integration of heard and seen speech: A factor in learning disabilities in children","volume":"351","author":"Hayes","year":"2003","journal-title":"Neurosci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1007\/s11682-017-9694-y","article-title":"Audio-visual speech perception in adult readers with dyslexia: An fMRI study","volume":"12","author":"Ye","year":"2018","journal-title":"Brain Imaging Behav."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2019.00021","article-title":"The Functional Neuroanatomy of Letter-Speech Sound Integration and Its Relation to Brain Abnormalities in Developmental Dyslexia","volume":"13","author":"Richlan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1331","DOI":"10.1162\/jocn_a_00581","article-title":"Individual differences in crossmodal brain activity predict arcuate fasciculus connectivity in developing readers","volume":"26","author":"Gullick","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Cogn. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nicl.2014.01.014","article-title":"Axonal deficits in young adults with High Functioning Autism and their impact on processing speed","volume":"4","author":"Lazar","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neuroimage Clin."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1032","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2008.03.057","article-title":"Cognitive processing speed and the structure of white matter pathways: Convergent evidence from normal variation and lesion studies","volume":"42","author":"Turken","year":"2008","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107233","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2019.107233","article-title":"White matter structure in schizophrenia and autism: Abnormal diffusion across the brain in schizophrenia","volume":"135","author":"Haigh","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liberati, A., Altman, D.G., Tetzlaff, J., Mulrow, C., G\u00f8tzsche, P.C., and Ioannidis, J.P. (2009). The PRISMA statement for reporting systematic reviews and meta-analyses of studies that evaluate health care interventions: Explanation and elaboration. PLoS Med., 62.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclinepi.2009.06.006"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1016\/0093-934X(80)90139-X","article-title":"Auditory temporal perception, phonics, and reading disabilities in children","volume":"9","author":"Tallal","year":"1980","journal-title":"Brain Lang."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-4328(02)00098-0","article-title":"Infant discrimination of rapid auditory cues predicts later language impairment","volume":"136","author":"Benasich","year":"2002","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1016\/S0278-2626(01)80044-0","article-title":"The \u201cTemporal Processing Deficit\u201d hypothesis in dyslexia: New experimental evidence","volume":"46","author":"Espesser","year":"2001","journal-title":"Brain Cogn."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"576","DOI":"10.1006\/brln.2001.2618","article-title":"Temporal processing and phonological impairment in dyslexia. Effect of phoneme lengthening on order judgement of two consonants","volume":"80","author":"Rey","year":"2002","journal-title":"Brain Lang."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2952","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.040546597","article-title":"Dynamic sensory sensitivity and children\u2019s word decoding skills","volume":"97","author":"Talcott","year":"2000","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1295","DOI":"10.1044\/jslhr.4206.1295","article-title":"Auditory temporal processing impairment: Neither necessary nor sufficient for causing language impairment in children","volume":"42","author":"Bishop","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"508","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03210986","article-title":"Auditory temporal perception deficits in the reading-impaired: A critical review of the evidence","volume":"2","author":"Mody","year":"1995","journal-title":"Psychon. Bull. Rev."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"384","DOI":"10.1044\/1092-4388(2001\/032)","article-title":"Perceptual discrimination of speech sounds in developmental dyslexia","volume":"44","author":"Serniclaes","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lindif.2010.03.008","article-title":"Temporal processing, attention, and learning disorders","volume":"20","author":"Landerl","year":"2010","journal-title":"Learn. Individ. Differ."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.1016\/S0959-4388(03)00035-7","article-title":"Developmental dyslexia: Specific phonological deficit or general sensorimotor dysfunction?","volume":"13","author":"Ramus","year":"2003","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1126\/science.271.5245.81","article-title":"Language comprehension in language-learning impaired children improved with acoustically modified speech","volume":"271","author":"Tallal","year":"1996","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1126\/science.271.5245.77","article-title":"Temporal processing deficits of language-learning impaired children ameliorated by training","volume":"271","author":"Merzenich","year":"1996","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1044\/1092-4388(2008\/007)","article-title":"The efficacy of Fast ForWord Language intervention in school-age children with language impairment: A randomized controlled trial","volume":"51","author":"Gillam","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2860","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0030098100","article-title":"Neural deficits in children with dyslexia ameliorated by behavioural remediation: Evidence from MRI","volume":"100","author":"Temple","year":"2003","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_142","first-page":"295","article-title":"Neural correlates of rapid auditory processing are disrupted in children with developmental dyslexia and ameliorated with training: An fMRI study","volume":"25","author":"Gaab","year":"2007","journal-title":"Restor. Neurol. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2044","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2012.05.004","article-title":"Deficit in the preattentive processing of syllabic duration and VOT in children with dyslexia","volume":"50","author":"Chobert","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Frey, A., Fran\u00e7ois, C., Chobert, J., Velay, J.L., Habib, M., and Besson, M. (2019). Music Training Positively Influences the Preattentive Perception of Voice Onset Time in Children with Dyslexia: A Longitudinal Study. Brain Sci., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci9040091"},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"340","DOI":"10.1006\/brln.2001.2593","article-title":"Crossmodal temporal order and processing acuity in developmentally dyslexic young adults","volume":"80","author":"Laasonen","year":"2002","journal-title":"Brain Lang."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"432","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2015.05.011","article-title":"Neural correlates of audiovisual temporal processing-comparison of temporal order and simultaneity judgments","volume":"300","author":"Binder","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2020.06.013","article-title":"Unisensory and multisensory temporal processing in autism and dyslexia: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"116","author":"Meilleur","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Protopapas, A. (2014). From temporal processing to developmental language disorders: Mind the gap. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B, 369.","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2013.0090"},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.1993.tb22958.x","article-title":"Is dyslexia a dyschronia?","volume":"682","author":"Llinas","year":"1993","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn3452","article-title":"The inner sense of time: How the brain creates a representation of duration","volume":"14","author":"Wittmann","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Casini, L., Pech-Georgel, C., and Ziegler, J.C. (2018). It\u2019s about time: Revisiting temporal processing deficits in dyslexia. Dev. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.1111\/desc.12530"},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/0010-0277(90)90017-E","article-title":"Representation of time","volume":"37","author":"Gibbon","year":"1990","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.1995.0007","article-title":"Time estimation deficits in developmental dyslexia: Evidence of cerebellar involvement","volume":"259","author":"Nicolson","year":"1995","journal-title":"Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1162\/jocn.1989.1.2.136","article-title":"Timing functions of the cerebellum","volume":"1","author":"Ivry","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Cogn. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4939-1782-2_9","article-title":"The olivo-cerebellar system as a neural clock","volume":"829","author":"Ashe","year":"2014","journal-title":"Adv. Exp. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cobeha.2016.02.034","article-title":"Taxonomies of timing: Where does the cerebellum fit in?","volume":"8","author":"Breska","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1080\/14734220601142886","article-title":"The cerebellum and neural networks for rhythmic sensorimotor synchronization in the human brain","volume":"6","author":"Molinari","year":"2007","journal-title":"Cerebellum"},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1007\/s12311-018-0979-5","article-title":"Consensus paper: Decoding the Contributions of the Cerebellum as a Time Machine. From Neurons to Clinical Applications","volume":"18","author":"Apps","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cerebellum"},{"key":"ref_159","first-page":"90","article-title":"A unified model of time perception accounts for duration-based and beat-based timing mechanisms","volume":"5","author":"Teki","year":"2011","journal-title":"Front. Integr. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.3406\/enfan.1951.1202","article-title":"Le probl\u00e8me du rythme dans le d\u00e9veloppement de l\u2019enfant et dans les dyslexies d\u2019\u00e9volution","volume":"5","author":"Stambak","year":"1951","journal-title":"Enfance"},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1013880723925","article-title":"Timing precision and rhythm in developmental dyslexia","volume":"15","author":"Wolff","year":"2002","journal-title":"Read. Writ."},{"key":"ref_162","first-page":"120","article-title":"Rhythmic processing in children with developmental dyslexia: Auditory and motor rhythms link to reading and spelling","volume":"102","author":"Thomson","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"392","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2014.00392","article-title":"Rhythm perception and production predict reading abilities in developmental dyslexia","volume":"8","author":"Flaugnacco","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cortex.2007.09.008","article-title":"Rhythmic motor entrainment in children with speech and language impairments: Tapping to the beat","volume":"45","author":"Corriveau","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cortex"},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Caccia, M., and Lorusso, M.L. (2020). The processing of rhythmic structures in music and prosody by children with developmental dyslexia and developmental language disorder. Dev. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.1111\/desc.12981"},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boll-Avetisyan, N., Bhatara, A., and H\u00f6hle, B. (2020). Processing of Rhythm in Speech and Music in Adult Dyslexia. Brain Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci10050261"},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1528","DOI":"10.1002\/wcs.1528","article-title":"Is atypical rhythm a risk factor for developmental speech and language disorders?","volume":"11","author":"Persici","year":"2020","journal-title":"Wiley Interdiscip. Rev. Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2017.00303","article-title":"The Evolution of Rhythm Cognition: Timing in Music and Speech","volume":"11","author":"Ravignani","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"635","DOI":"10.1111\/desc.12230","article-title":"Musical rhythm discrimination explains individual differences in grammar skills in children","volume":"18","author":"Gordon","year":"2015","journal-title":"Dev. Sci."},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1037\/a0031277","article-title":"Rhythmic auditory stimulation influences syntactic processing in children with developmental language disorders","volume":"27","author":"Przybylski","year":"2013","journal-title":"Neuropsychology"},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2016.00245","article-title":"Temporally regular musical primes facilitate subsequent syntax processing in children with specific language impairment","volume":"10","author":"Bedoin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105531","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bandc.2020.105531","article-title":"A stimulus-brain coupling analysis of regular and irregular rhythms in adults with dyslexia and controls","volume":"140","author":"Fiveash","year":"2020","journal-title":"Brain Cogn."},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-6393(02)00107-3","article-title":"The analysis of speech in different temporal integration windows: Cerebral lateralization as \u201casymmetric sampling in time\u201d","volume":"41","author":"Poeppel","year":"2003","journal-title":"Speech Commun."},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1038\/nn.3063","article-title":"Cortical oscillations and speech processing: Emerging computational principles and operations","volume":"15","author":"Giraud","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2010.10.001","article-title":"A temporal sampling framework for developmental dyslexia","volume":"15","author":"Goswami","year":"2011","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"674","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cortex.2010.07.010","article-title":"Music, rhythm, rise time perception and developmental dyslexia: Perception of musical meter predicts reading and phonology","volume":"47","author":"Huss","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cortex"},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4986","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.22986","article-title":"Developmental evaluation of atypical auditory sampling in dyslexia: Functional and structural evidence","volume":"36","author":"Lizarazu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Hum. Brain Mapp."},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbr.2017.03.048","article-title":"An oscillopathic approach to developmental dyslexia: From genes to speech processing","volume":"329","author":"Marrero","year":"2017","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_179","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"811","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2013.00811","article-title":"Reading into neuronal oscillations in the visual system: Implications for developmental dyslexia","volume":"7","author":"Vidyasagar","year":"2013","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2019.02.009","article-title":"Visual attention and neural oscillations in reading and dyslexia: Are they possible targets for remediation?","volume":"130","author":"Vidyasagar","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref_181","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1261","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.22250","article-title":"An independent components and functional connectivity analysis of resting state fMRI data points to neural network dysregulation in adult ADHD","volume":"35","author":"Hoekzema","year":"2014","journal-title":"Hum. Brain Mapp."},{"key":"ref_182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1080\/02643294.2013.842548","article-title":"The cognitive structure of time estimation impairments in adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder","volume":"30","author":"Suarez","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cogn. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_183","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1080\/87565641.2020.1764566","article-title":"How Is Temporal Processing Affected in Children with Attention-deficit\/hyperactivity Disorder?","volume":"45","author":"Suarez","year":"2020","journal-title":"Dev. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_184","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1111\/nyas.13701","article-title":"Is Auditory Perceptual Timing a Core Deficit of Developmental Coordination Disorder?","volume":"1423","author":"Trainor","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_185","first-page":"245","article-title":"Aberrant Oscillatory Synchrony Is Biased Toward Specific Frequencies and Processing Domains in the Autistic Brain. Biol","volume":"2","author":"Ghuman","year":"2017","journal-title":"Psychiatry Cogn. Neurosci. Neuroimaging"},{"key":"ref_186","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6049","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.22604","article-title":"Atypical resting synchrony in autism spectrum disorder","volume":"35","author":"Ye","year":"2014","journal-title":"Hum Brain Mapp."},{"key":"ref_187","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112121","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbr.2019.112121","article-title":"How did I get so late so soon? A review of time processing and management in autism","volume":"374","author":"Jurek","year":"2019","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_188","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2214.2011.01249.x","article-title":"Validity in assessing time processing ability, test equating of KaTid-Child and KaTid-Youth","volume":"38","year":"2012","journal-title":"Child Care Health Dev."},{"key":"ref_189","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"691","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.3615-13.2014","article-title":"Multisensory temporal integration in Autism Spectrum Disorders","volume":"34","author":"Stevenson","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_190","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.1177\/1362361317704413","article-title":"The cascading influence of multisensory processing on speech perception in autism","volume":"22","author":"Stevenson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Autism"},{"key":"ref_191","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"983","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-010-1123-7","article-title":"Slowing down the presentation of facial and body movements enhances imitation performance in children with severe autism","volume":"41","author":"Rauzy","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Autism Dev. Disord."},{"key":"ref_192","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2013.12.009","article-title":"The enigma of dyslexic musicians","volume":"54","author":"Weiss","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref_193","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1002\/dys.1479","article-title":"Auditory temporal processing skills in musicians with dyslexia","volume":"20","author":"Welch","year":"2014","journal-title":"Dyslexia"},{"key":"ref_194","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-444-63327-9.00008-4","article-title":"Music training for the development of reading skills","volume":"207","author":"Tierney","year":"2013","journal-title":"Prog. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_195","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1525\/mp.2009.26.3.279","article-title":"What do Music Training and Musical Experience Teach Us About Brain Plasticity?","volume":"26","author":"Habib","year":"2009","journal-title":"Music Percept."},{"key":"ref_196","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1196\/annals.1284.060","article-title":"Dyslexia and music. From timing deficits to musical intervention","volume":"999","author":"Overy","year":"2003","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_197","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1111\/mbe.12016","article-title":"A rhythmic musical intervention for poor readers: A comparison of efficacy with a letter-based intervention","volume":"7","author":"Bhide","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mind Brain Educ."},{"key":"ref_198","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Flaugnacco, E., Lopez, L., Terribili, C., Montico, M., Zoia, S., and Sch\u00f6n, D. (2015). Music Training Increases Phonological Awareness and Reading Skills in Developmental Dyslexia: A Randomized Control Trial. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0138715"},{"key":"ref_199","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"726","DOI":"10.1038\/453726a","article-title":"Science and music: Talk of the tone","volume":"453","author":"Patel","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_200","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1007\/s11145-012-9359-6","article-title":"Auditory processing interventions and developmental dyslexia: A comparison of phonemic and rhythmic approaches","volume":"26","author":"Thomson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Read. Writ."},{"key":"ref_201","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8872","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.0709-16.2016","article-title":"Neural Basis of Acquired Amusia and Its Recovery after Stroke","volume":"36","author":"Sihvonen","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_202","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dcn.2018.07.001","article-title":"Neural correlates of phonological processing: Disrupted in children with dyslexia and enhanced in musically trained children","volume":"34","author":"Zuk","year":"2018","journal-title":"Dev. Cogn. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_203","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cancer, A., Stievano, G., Pace, G., Colombo, A., and Antonietti, A. (2019). Cognitive Processes Underlying Reading Improvement during a Rhythm-Based Intervention. A Small-Scale Investigation of Italian Children with Dyslexia. Children, 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/children6080091"},{"key":"ref_204","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2018.00103","article-title":"Longitudinal Analysis of Music Education on Executive Functions in Primary School Children","volume":"12","author":"Jaschke","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_205","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cheung, M.-C., Chan, A.S., Liu, Y., Law, D., and Wong, C.W.Y. (2017). Music training is associated with cortical synchronization reflected in EEG coherence during verbal memory encoding. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0174906"},{"key":"ref_206","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2020.00266","article-title":"Music Training, Working Memory, and Neural Oscillations: A Review","volume":"11","author":"Yurgil","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_207","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2011.00156","article-title":"Effects of practice and experience on the arcuate fasciculus: Comparing singers, instrumentalists, and non-musicians","volume":"2","author":"Halwani","year":"2011","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_208","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bandc.2017.05.001","article-title":"Diffusion tensor MRI tractography reveals increased fractional anisotropy (FA) in arcuate fasciculus following music-cued motor training","volume":"116","author":"Moore","year":"2017","journal-title":"Brain Cogn."},{"key":"ref_209","unstructured":"Habib, M., and Commeiras, C. (2014). M\u00e9lodys: Rem\u00e9diation Cognitivo-Musicale des Troubles de L\u2019apprentissage, De Boeck."},{"key":"ref_210","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2016.00026","article-title":"Music and Dyslexia: A New Musical Training Method to Improve Reading and Related Disorders","volume":"7","author":"Habib","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."}],"container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3425\/11\/6\/708\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T06:08:38Z","timestamp":1760162918000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3425\/11\/6\/708"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,27]]},"references-count":210,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6]]}},"alternative-id":["brainsci11060708"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/brainsci11060708","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-3425"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-3425","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,27]]}}}