{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,15]],"date-time":"2026-09-15T18:50:36Z","timestamp":1789498236242,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":78,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,16]],"date-time":"2021-11-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1637020800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001826","name":"Netherlands Organisation for Health Research and Development","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["729300013"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["729300013"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001826","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Attention-Deficit\/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in children is associated with several adverse family characteristics, such as higher parenting stress, more conflicted parent\u2013child relationships, lower parental competence, and higher levels of parental psychopathology. Hence, children with ADHD more often grow up under suboptimal circumstances, which may impact the development of their attachment representations. Here, we investigated whether children with ADHD have more insecure and disorganized attachment representations than their typically developing peers, and which factors could explain this association. We included 104 children between 4 and 11 years old, 74 with ADHD (without Conduct Disorder) and 30 typically developing control children. Children completed a state-of-the-art story stem task to assess their attachment representation, and we measured parents\u2019 expressed emotion (as an index of parent\u2013child relationship quality), parents\u2019 perceived sense of competence, parental education levels, and parent-rated ODD symptoms of the child. We found that, after controlling for multiple comparisons, children with ADHD had less secure and more ambivalent and disorganized attachment representations relative to their typically developing peers. These group differences were independent of comorbid ODD and parental education levels. There were no group differences on avoidant attachment representations. Explorative analyses within the ADHD group showed that attachment representations were not related to parent\u2013child relationship quality, perceived parenting competence, parental education levels, and comorbid ODD symptoms. We conclude that children with ADHD disproportionately often have attachment problems. Although this conclusion is important, treatment implications of this co-occurrence are yet unclear as research on ADHD and attachment is still in its infancy.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci11111516","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,16]],"date-time":"2021-11-16T11:32:03Z","timestamp":1637062323000},"page":"1516","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":21,"title":["Attachment Representations in Children with and without Attention-Deficit\/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8572-5606","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tycho J.","family":"Dekkers","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, 9713 GZ Groningen, The Netherlands"},{"name":"Accare Child Study Center, 9713 GZ Groningen, The Netherlands"},{"name":"Academic Center for Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Levvel, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands"},{"name":"Department of Psychology, University of Amsterdam, 1018 WS Amsterdam, The Netherlands"},{"name":"Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Amsterdam University Medical Centers (AUMC), 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rianne","family":"Hornstra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, 9713 GZ Groningen, The Netherlands"},{"name":"Accare Child Study Center, 9713 GZ Groningen, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Barbara J.","family":"van den Hoofdakker","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, 9713 GZ Groningen, The Netherlands"},{"name":"Accare Child Study Center, 9713 GZ Groningen, The Netherlands"},{"name":"Department of Clinical Psychology and Experimental Psychopathology, University of Groningen, 9712 TS Groningen, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Suzanne R. C.","family":"de Jong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinical Neuropsychology Section, Department of Clinical, Neuro and Developmental Psychology, Vrije Universiteit, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jessica V.","family":"Schaaf","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, University of Amsterdam, 1018 WS Amsterdam, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9057-6027","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Guy","family":"Bosmans","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2771-0187","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Saskia","family":"van der Oord","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium"},{"name":"Leuven Brain Institute, 3000 Leuven, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"American Psychiatric Association (2013). 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