{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]],"date-time":"2026-07-01T22:26:49Z","timestamp":1782944809436,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,22]],"date-time":"2022-04-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1650585600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001691","name":"Japan Society for the Promotion of Science","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["JP20K11173"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JP20K11173"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001691","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Attention focus changes performance, and external focus (EF) improves performance compared to internal focus (IF). However, recently, the dominance of attention focus, rather than the effectiveness of unilateral EF, has been examined. Although the positive effects of EF on standing postural control have been reported, the dominance of attention focus has not yet been examined. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the dominance of attention focus and its neural mechanism in standing postural control using electroencephalography (EEG). A standing postural control task under IF and EF conditions was performed on healthy young men. Gravity center sway and cortical activity simultaneously using a stabilometer and an EEG were measured. Participants were classified into IF-dominant and EF-dominant groups according to their index of postural stability. The EEG was analyzed, and cortical activity in the theta-wave band was compared between the IF-dominant and EF-dominant groups. Significant neural activity was observed in the left parietal lobe of the IF-dominant group in the IF condition, and in the left frontal lobe of the EF-dominant group in the EF condition (p &lt; 0.05). Differences in EEG activity between IF-dominant and EF-dominant groups, in standing postural control, were detected. This contributes to the development of training methods that consider attentional focus dominance in postural control.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci12050538","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,23]],"date-time":"2022-04-23T08:14:06Z","timestamp":1650701646000},"page":"538","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Dominance of Attention Focus and Its Electroencephalogram Activity in Standing Postural Control in Healthy Young Adults"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5031-4305","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shun","family":"Sawai","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Health Sciences, Kyoto Tachibana University, Kyoto 607-8175, Japan"},{"name":"Department of Rehabilitation, Kyoto Kuno Hospital, Kyoto 605-0981, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shoya","family":"Fujikawa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physical Therapy, Faculty of Health Sciences, Kyoto Tachibana University, Kyoto 607-8175, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shin","family":"Murata","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Health Sciences, Kyoto Tachibana University, Kyoto 607-8175, Japan"},{"name":"Department of Physical Therapy, Faculty of Health Sciences, Kyoto Tachibana University, Kyoto 607-8175, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5131-9834","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Teppei","family":"Abiko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Health Sciences, Kyoto Tachibana University, Kyoto 607-8175, Japan"},{"name":"Department of Physical Therapy, Faculty of Health Sciences, Kyoto Tachibana University, Kyoto 607-8175, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2312-6154","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hideki","family":"Nakano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Health Sciences, Kyoto Tachibana University, Kyoto 607-8175, Japan"},{"name":"Department of Physical Therapy, Faculty of Health Sciences, Kyoto Tachibana University, Kyoto 607-8175, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1080\/00222899809601334","article-title":"Instructions for motor learning: Differential effects of internal versus external focus of attention","volume":"30","author":"Wulf","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Mot. Behav."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1080\/00222895.2019.1582472","article-title":"Motor behavior concepts in the study of balance: A scoping review","volume":"52","author":"Aloraini","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Mot. Behav."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"542","DOI":"10.1016\/j.humov.2010.05.001","article-title":"How changing the focus of attention affects performance, kinematics, and electromyography in dart throwing","volume":"29","author":"Lohse","year":"2010","journal-title":"Hum. Mov. Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"1120","article-title":"Effects of changing the focus of attention on accuracy, acceleration, and electromyography in dart throwing","volume":"11","author":"Hitchcock","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Exerc. Sci."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"384","DOI":"10.1080\/02701367.2007.10599436","article-title":"An external focus of attention enhances golf shot accuracy in beginners and experts","volume":"78","author":"Wulf","year":"2007","journal-title":"Res. Q. Exerc. Sport"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"662","DOI":"10.2466\/05.23.25.PMS.113.5.662-670","article-title":"Effect of different external attention of focus instruction on learning of golf putting skill","volume":"113","author":"Shafizadeh","year":"2011","journal-title":"Percept. Mot. Ski."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1143","DOI":"10.1080\/713756012","article-title":"The automaticity of complex motor skill learning as a function of attentional focus","volume":"54","author":"Wulf","year":"2001","journal-title":"Q. J. Exp. Psychol. A"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1123\/jsep.29.1.60","article-title":"Effects of focus of attention on baseball batting performance in players of differing skill levels","volume":"29","author":"Castaneda","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Sport Exerc. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1080\/0264041031000101980","article-title":"Effects of focus of attention depend on golfers\u2019 skill","volume":"21","author":"Passmore","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Sports Sci."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"647","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-010-2274-7","article-title":"Attentional influences on the performance of secondary physical tasks during posture control","volume":"203","author":"Cluff","year":"2010","journal-title":"Exp. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1771","DOI":"10.1007\/s00421-016-3434-7","article-title":"Does the type of visual feedback information change the control of standing balance?","volume":"116","author":"Lemos","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur. J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"572","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2010.08.004","article-title":"An external focus of attention enhances balance learning in older adults","volume":"32","author":"Chiviacowsky","year":"2010","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1080\/02701367.2013.762321","article-title":"Effects of attentional focus and age on suprapostural task performance and postural control","volume":"84","author":"McNevin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Res. Q. Exerc. Sport"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.2522\/ptj.20160217","article-title":"Dopa-responsive balance changes depend on use of internal versus external attentional focus in Parkinson disease","volume":"97","author":"Beck","year":"2017","journal-title":"Phys. Ther."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.2522\/ptj.20080045","article-title":"External focus instructions reduce postural instability in individuals with Parkinson disease","volume":"89","author":"Wulf","year":"2009","journal-title":"Phys. Ther."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.17485\/ijst\/2015\/v8iS8\/64705","article-title":"EEG-biofeedback intervention improves balance in stroke survivor","volume":"8","author":"Choi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Indian J. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"564","DOI":"10.2519\/jospt.2007.2519","article-title":"Effect of focus of attention on transfer of a postural control task following an ankle sprain","volume":"37","author":"Laufer","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Orthop. Sports Phys."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmr.2006.10.028","article-title":"Effect of attention focus on acquisition and retention of postural control following ankle sprain","volume":"88","author":"Laufer","year":"2007","journal-title":"Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"pzab223","DOI":"10.1093\/ptj\/pzab223","article-title":"External focus of attention influences cortical activity associated with single limb balance performance","volume":"101","author":"Sherman","year":"2021","journal-title":"Phys. Ther."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-015-4464-9","article-title":"Optimization of a motor learning attention-directing strategy based on an individual\u2019s motor imagery ability","volume":"234","author":"Sakurada","year":"2016","journal-title":"Exp. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01183","DOI":"10.1002\/brb3.1183","article-title":"Individual optimal attentional strategy during implicit motor learning boosts frontoparietal neural processing efficiency: A functional near-infrared spectroscopy study","volume":"9","author":"Sakurada","year":"2019","journal-title":"Brain Behav."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"784292","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2021.784292","article-title":"Individual optimal attentional strategy in motor learning tasks characterized by steady-state somatosensory and visual evoked potentials","volume":"15","author":"Sakurada","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2019.02.006","article-title":"Be prepared: Tune to FM-theta for cognitive control","volume":"42","author":"Sauseng","year":"2019","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cnp.2017.09.002","article-title":"Functional localization and effective connectivity of cortical theta and alpha oscillatory activity during an attention task","volume":"2","author":"Kitaura","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Neurophysiol. Pract."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"793","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neurobiolaging.2007.08.021","article-title":"Postural sway reduction in aging men and women: Relation to brain structure, cognitive status, and stabilizing factors","volume":"30","author":"Sullivan","year":"2009","journal-title":"Neurobiol. Aging"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schedler, S., Brueckner, D., Kiss, R., and Muehlbauer, T. (2020). Effect of practice on learning to maintain balance under dynamic conditions in children: Are there sex differences?. BMC Sports Sci. Med. Rehabil., 12.","DOI":"10.1186\/s13102-020-00166-z"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1123\/wspaj.12.1.37","article-title":"Attentional focus in motor skill learning: Do females benefit from an external focus?","volume":"12","author":"Wulf","year":"2003","journal-title":"Women Sport Phys. Act. J."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"86","article-title":"Age-dependent changes in dynamic standing-balance ability evaluated quantitatively using a stabilometer","volume":"30","author":"Suzuki","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Phys. Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/9961612","article-title":"Relationships between cognitive function and odor identification, balance capability, and muscle strength in middle-aged persons with and without type 2 diabetes","volume":"2021","author":"Midorikawa","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Res."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.15296\/ijwhr.2019.02","article-title":"Do squat exercises with weight shift during pregnancy improve postural control?","volume":"7","author":"Takeda","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Women\u2019s Health Reprod. Sci."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1589\/jpts.32.23","article-title":"Characteristics of dynamic standing balance with and without an insole in patients with spastic diplegia cerebral palsy","volume":"32","author":"Kusumoto","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Phys. Ther. Sci."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1080\/0361073X.2016.1156977","article-title":"Using a manipulation check to uncover age-related difference in focus of attention instruction during a balance task","volume":"42","author":"Yeh","year":"2016","journal-title":"Exp. Aging Res."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1080\/0361073X.2017.1258214","article-title":"Continuous cognitive task promotes greater postural stability than an internal or external focus of attention in older adults","volume":"43","author":"Richer","year":"2017","journal-title":"Exp. Aging Res."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1016\/S0165-0173(98)00056-3","article-title":"EEG alpha and theta oscillations reflect cognitive and memory performance: A review and analysis","volume":"29","author":"Klimesch","year":"1999","journal-title":"Brain Res. Brain Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"406","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2014.00406","article-title":"Frontal midline theta rhythm and gamma power changes during focused attention on mental calculation: An MEG beamformer analysis","volume":"8","author":"Ishii","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3321","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-016-4730-5","article-title":"Cortical activity modulations underlying age-related performance differences during posture-cognition dual tasking","volume":"234","author":"Ozdemir","year":"2016","journal-title":"Exp. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1323","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-020-05810-1","article-title":"Balance task difficulty affects postural sway and cortical activity in healthy adolescents","volume":"238","author":"Gebel","year":"2020","journal-title":"Exp. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Pascual-Marqui, R.D. (2007). Discrete, 3D distributed, linear imaging methods of electric neuronal activity. Part 1: Exact, zero error localization. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dominguez, M.C., O\u2019Keeffe, C., O\u2019Rourke, E., Feerick, N., and Reilly, R.B. (2019, January 23\u201327). Cortical theta activity and postural control in non-visual and high cognitive load tasks: Impact for clinical studies. Proceedings of the 2019 41st Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC), Berlin, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/EMBC.2019.8857663"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"615","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2013.09.024","article-title":"A key region in the human parietal cortex for processing proprioceptive hand feedback during reaching movements","volume":"84","author":"Reichenbach","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4314","DOI":"10.1111\/ejn.15259","article-title":"Changes in theta and alpha oscillatory signatures of attentional control in older and middle age","volume":"54","author":"Huizeling","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2018.04.033","article-title":"Conscious motor control impairs attentional processing efficiency during precision stepping","volume":"63","author":"Ellmers","year":"2018","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"e13873","article-title":"Improving cognitive control: Is theta neurofeedback training associated with proactive rather than reactive control enhancement?","volume":"6","author":"Eschmann","year":"2021","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2406","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinph.2013.05.020","article-title":"Neurofeedback training improves attention and working memory performance","volume":"124","author":"Wang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bandc.2018.02.002","article-title":"Topographical differences of frontal-midline theta activity reflect functional differences in cognitive control abilities","volume":"123","author":"Eschmann","year":"2018","journal-title":"Brain Cogn."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2014.04.012","article-title":"Frontal theta as a mechanism for cognitive control","volume":"18","author":"Cavanagh","year":"2014","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2015.02.049","article-title":"Cortical processes associated with continuous balance control as revealed by EEG spectral power","volume":"592","author":"Mierau","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neurosci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"695","article-title":"Higher balance task demands are associated with an increase in individual alpha peak frequency","volume":"9","author":"Mierau","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2018.12.045","article-title":"Cortical dynamics during preparation and execution of reactive balance responses with distinct postural demands","volume":"188","author":"Weerdesteyn","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/0013-4694(93)90061-Y","article-title":"The spatial location of EEG electrodes: Locating the best-fitting sphere relative to cortical anatomy","volume":"86","author":"Towle","year":"1993","journal-title":"Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1097\/00004691-199010000-00006","article-title":"Adequacy of the International 10\u201320 electrode system for computed neurophysiologic topography","volume":"7","author":"Myslobodsky","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1600","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2006.09.024","article-title":"10\/20, 10\/10, and 10\/5 systems revisited: Their validity as relative head-surface-based positioning systems","volume":"34","author":"Jurcak","year":"2007","journal-title":"Neuroimage"}],"container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3425\/12\/5\/538\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:59:13Z","timestamp":1760137153000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3425\/12\/5\/538"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,22]]},"references-count":52,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,5]]}},"alternative-id":["brainsci12050538"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/brainsci12050538","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-3425"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-3425","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,22]]}}}