{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T09:18:46Z","timestamp":1790759926308,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":19,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,3]],"date-time":"2022-08-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1659484800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Orasis-Ear"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>It is known that dyslexics present eye movement abnormalities. Previously, we have shown that eye movement abnormalities during reading or during saccade and vergence testing can predict dyslexia successfully. The current study further examines this issue focusing on eye movements during free exploration of paintings; the dataset was provided by a study in our laboratory carried by Ward and Kapoula. Machine learning (ML) classifiers were applied to eye movement features extracted by the software AIDEAL: a velocity threshold analysis reporting amplitude speed and disconjugacy of horizontal saccades. In addition, a new feature was introduced that concerns only the very short periods during which the eyes were moving, one to the left the other to the right; such periods occurred mostly during fixations between saccades; we calculated a global index of the frequency of such disconjugacy segments, of their duration and their amplitude. Such continuous evaluation of disconjugacy throughout the time series of eye movements differs from the disconjugacy feature that describes inequality of the saccade amplitude between the two eyes. The results show that both AIDEAL features, and the Disconjugacy Global Index (DGI) enable successful categorization of dyslexics from non-dyslexics, at least when applying this analysis to the specific paintings used in the present study. We suggest that this high power of predictability arises from both the content of the paintings selected and the physiologic relevance of eye movement features extracted by the AIDEAL and the DGI.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci12081031","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,3]],"date-time":"2022-08-03T20:52:01Z","timestamp":1659559921000},"page":"1031","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["Predicting Dyslexia in Adolescents from Eye Movements during Free Painting Viewing"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Alae Eddine","family":"El Hmimdi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Orasis Eye Analytics and Rehabilitation, CNRS Spinoff up, 12 rue Lacretelle, 75015 Paris, France"},{"name":"LIPADE, French University Institute (IUF), Laboratoire d\u2019Informatique Paris Descartes, University of Paris, 45 Rue Des Saints-P\u00e8res, 75006 Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5358-3535","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lindsey M","family":"Ward","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IRIS Lab, Neurophysiology of Binocular Motor Control and Vision, CNRS UAR 2022, University of Paris, 45 rue des Saints P\u00e8res, 75006 Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Themis","family":"Palpanas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"LIPADE, French University Institute (IUF), Laboratoire d\u2019Informatique Paris Descartes, University of Paris, 45 Rue Des Saints-P\u00e8res, 75006 Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vivien","family":"Sainte Fare Garnot","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Orasis Eye Analytics and Rehabilitation, CNRS Spinoff up, 12 rue Lacretelle, 75015 Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zo\u00ef","family":"Kapoula","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Orasis Eye Analytics and Rehabilitation, CNRS Spinoff up, 12 rue Lacretelle, 75015 Paris, France"},{"name":"IRIS Lab, Neurophysiology of Binocular Motor Control and Vision, CNRS UAR 2022, University of Paris, 45 rue des Saints P\u00e8res, 75006 Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22116","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-79089-1","article-title":"Differential diagnosis of vergence and saccade disorders in dyslexia","volume":"10","author":"Ward","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ward, L., and Kapoula, Z. (2021). Dyslexics\u2019 Fragile Oculomotor Control Is Further Destabilized by Increased Text Difficulty. Brain Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci11080990"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Asvestopoulou, T., Manousaki, V., Psistakis, A., Smyrnakis, I., Andreadakis, V., Aslanides, I.M., and Papadopouli, M. (2019). DysLexML: Screening Tool for Dyslexia Using Machine Learning. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"El Hmimdi, A.E., Ward, L.M., Palpanas, T., and Kapoula, Z. (2021). Predicting Dyslexia and Reading Speed in Adolescents from Eye Movements in Reading and Non-Reading Tasks: A Machine Learning Approach. Brain Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci11101337"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ward, L.M., and Kapoula, Z. (2022). Disconjugate Eye Movements in Dyslexic Adolescents while Viewing Op Art: A creative handicap?. Brain Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci12070835"},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Ward, L., and Kapoula, Z. Creativity and eye movement exploration of Magritte\u2019s and Escher\u2019s paintings in dyslexics and non dyslexics. Brain Sci. J., 2022. submitted."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1007\/s00114-004-0511-2","article-title":"A new look at Op art: Towards a simple explanation of illusory motion","volume":"91","author":"Zanker","year":"2004","journal-title":"Naturwissenschaften"},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Kapoula, Z., Lestocart, L.J., and Allouche, J.P. (2014). Dyslexia and Creativity. ESth\u00e9tique et complexit\u00e9, II CNRS \u00c9ditions."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"(2021, December 01). Pupila Capture Eye Tracker. Available online: https:\/\/pupil-labs.com\/."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1035","DOI":"10.1016\/S0042-6989(03)00084-1","article-title":"Microsaccades uncover the orientation of covert attention","volume":"43","author":"Engbert","year":"2003","journal-title":"Vis. Res."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2389","DOI":"10.1111\/ejn.12248","article-title":"Microsaccade and drift dynamics reflect mental fatigue","volume":"38","author":"McCamy","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1007\/s11357-013-9582-3","article-title":"Distinctive features of microsaccades in Alzheimer's disease and in mild cognitive impairment","volume":"36","author":"Kapoula","year":"2014","journal-title":"Age"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2015.00121","article-title":"Eye movement instructions modulate motion illusion and body sway with Op Art","volume":"9","author":"Kapoula","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-007-1081-2","article-title":"Depth cues, rather than perceived depth, govern vergence","volume":"184","author":"Wismeijer","year":"2008","journal-title":"Exp. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/0028-3932(81)90044-0","article-title":"Do eye movements hold the key to dyslexia?","volume":"19","author":"Pavlidis","year":"1981","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Blythe, H.I., Kirkby, J.A., and Liversedge, S.P. (2018). Comments on: \u201cWhat Is Developmental Dyslexia?\u201d Brain Sci. 2018, 8, 26. The Relationship between Eye Movements and Reading Difficulties. Brain Sci., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci8060100"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1247","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-37778-y","article-title":"Induced vergence-accommodation conflict reduces cognitive performance in the Stroop test","volume":"9","author":"Daniel","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jainta, S., and Kapoula, Z. (2011). Dyslexic children are confronted with unstable binocular fixation while reading. PLoS ONE, 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0018694"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.124.3.372","article-title":"Eye movements in reading and information processing: 20 years of research","volume":"124","author":"Rayner","year":"1998","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."}],"container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3425\/12\/8\/1031\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T00:03:37Z","timestamp":1760141017000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3425\/12\/8\/1031"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,3]]},"references-count":19,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,8]]}},"alternative-id":["brainsci12081031"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/brainsci12081031","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-3425"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-3425","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,3]]}}}