{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T04:48:53Z","timestamp":1790657333454,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":91,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,30]],"date-time":"2022-08-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1661817600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The cerebellum is particularly enriched in antigens and represents a vulnerable target to immune attacks. Immune-mediated cerebellar ataxias (IMCAs) have diverse etiologies, such as gluten ataxia (GA), post-infectious cerebellitis (PIC), Miller Fisher syndrome (MFS), paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration (PCD), opsoclonus myoclonus syndrome (OMS), and anti-GAD ataxia. Apart from these well-established entities, cerebellar ataxia (CA) occurs also in association with autoimmunity against ion channels and related proteins, synaptic adhesion\/organizing proteins, transmitter receptors, glial cells, as well as the brainstem antigens. Most of these conditions manifest diverse neurological clinical features, with CAs being one of the main clinical phenotypes. The term primary autoimmune cerebellar ataxia (PACA) refers to ataxic conditions suspected to be autoimmune even in the absence of specific well-characterized pathogenic antibody markers. We review advances in the field of IMCAs and propose a clinical approach for the understanding and diagnosis of IMCAs, focusing on rare etiologies which are likely underdiagnosed. The frontiers of PACA are discussed. The identification of rare immune ataxias is of importance since they are potentially treatable and may lead to a severe clinical syndrome in absence of early therapy.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci12091165","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,30]],"date-time":"2022-08-30T21:25:18Z","timestamp":1661894718000},"page":"1165","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Rare Etiologies in Immune-Mediated Cerebellar Ataxias: Diagnostic Challenges"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2542-8954","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marios","family":"Hadjivassiliou","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Academic Department of Neurosciences, Royal Hallamshire Hospital, Glossop Road, Sheffield S10 2JF, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mario","family":"Manto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Service de Neurologie, M\u00e9diath\u00e8que Jean Jacquy, CHU-Charleroi, 6000 Charleroi, Belgium"},{"name":"Service des Neurosciences, University of Mons, 7000 Mons, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0513-1811","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hiroshi","family":"Mitoma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Education, Tokyo Medical University, Tokyo 160-0023, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-444-51892-7.00011-5","article-title":"Immune-mediated acquired ataxias","volume":"103","author":"Hadjivassiliou","year":"2012","journal-title":"Handb. 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