{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,9]],"date-time":"2026-10-09T11:32:39Z","timestamp":1791545559484,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":82,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,12]],"date-time":"2022-11-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1668211200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000025","name":"National Institute of Mental Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R15MH116337"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R15MH116337"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000025","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Childhood maltreatment may alter fear neurocircuitry, which results in pathological anxiety and depression. One alteration of fear-related behaviors that has been observed in several psychiatric populations is an overgeneralization of fear. Thus, we examined the association between childhood maltreatment and fear generalization in a non-clinical sample of young adults. Two hundred and ninety-one participants underwent differential fear conditioning in a fear-potentiated startle paradigm. One visual stimulus (CS+), but not another (CS\u2212), was associated with an aversive airblast to the throat (US) during acquisition. The next day, participants were tested for their fear responses to the CS+, CS\u2212, and several generalization stimuli (GS) without the presence of the US. Participants also completed questionnaires that assessed symptoms of childhood maltreatment, anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Participants reporting high childhood maltreatment (n = 71; 23 males, 48 females) exhibited significantly greater anxiety, depression, and symptoms of PTSD than participants reporting low childhood maltreatment (n = 220; 133 males, 87 females). Females reporting high childhood maltreatment demonstrated significantly enhanced fear learning and greater fear generalization, based on their fear-potentiated startle responses. Our findings suggest that childhood maltreatment may sex-dependently influence the development of fear neurocircuitry and result in greater fear generalization in maltreated females.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci12111536","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,14]],"date-time":"2022-11-14T02:32:01Z","timestamp":1668393121000},"page":"1536","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":18,"title":["Childhood Maltreatment in Females Is Associated with Enhanced Fear Acquisition and an Overgeneralization of Fear"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9967-9145","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Phillip","family":"Zoladz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Psychology Program, The School of Health and Behavioral Sciences, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH 45810, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kassidy","family":"Reneau","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Psychology Program, The School of Health and Behavioral Sciences, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH 45810, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jordan","family":"Weiser","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Psychology Program, The School of Health and Behavioral Sciences, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH 45810, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7978-4458","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chloe","family":"Cordes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Psychology Program, The School of Health and Behavioral Sciences, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH 45810, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Emma","family":"Virden","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Psychology Program, The School of Health and Behavioral Sciences, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH 45810, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sara","family":"Helwig","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Psychology Program, The School of Health and Behavioral Sciences, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH 45810, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Caitlin","family":"Thebeault","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Psychology Program, The School of Health and Behavioral Sciences, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH 45810, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cassidy","family":"Pfister","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Psychology Program, The School of Health and Behavioral Sciences, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH 45810, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bruktawit","family":"Getnet","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Psychology Program, The 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