{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,24]],"date-time":"2026-10-24T03:24:02Z","timestamp":1792812242553,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":60,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,26]],"date-time":"2023-02-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1677369600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Ministry of Education, Science and Technology Development of Serbia, Belgrade, Serbia","award":["451-03-68\/2022-14\/200103"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["451-03-68\/2022-14\/200103"]}]},{"name":"Ministry of Education, Science and Technology Development of Serbia, Belgrade, Serbia","award":["451-03-68\/2022-14\/200223"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["451-03-68\/2022-14\/200223"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Developing reliable, quantifiable, and accessible metrics for dyslexia diagnosis and tracking represents an important goal, considering the widespread nature of dyslexia and its negative impact on education and quality of life. In this study, we observe eye-tracking data from 15 dyslexic and 15 neurotypical Serbian school-age children who read text segments presented on different color configurations. Two new eye-tracking features were introduced that quantify the amount of spatial complexity of the subject\u2019s gaze through time and inherently provide information regarding the locations in the text in which the subject struggled the most. The features were extracted from the raw eye-tracking data (x, y coordinates), from the original data gathered at 60 Hz, and from the downsampled data at 30 Hz, examining the compatibility of features with low-cost or custom-made eye-trackers. The features were used as inputs to machine learning algorithms, and the best-obtained accuracy was 88.9% for 60 Hz and 87.8% for 30 Hz. The features were also used to analyze the influence of background\/overlay color on the quality of reading, and it was shown that the introduced features separate the dyslexic and control groups regardless of the background\/overlay color. The colors can, however, influence each subject differently, which implies that an individualistic approach would be necessary to obtain the best therapeutic results. The performed study shows promise in dyslexia detection and evaluation, as the proposed features can be implemented in real time as feedback during reading and show effectiveness at detecting dyslexia with data obtained using a lower sampling rate.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci13030405","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,27]],"date-time":"2023-02-27T02:22:16Z","timestamp":1677464536000},"page":"405","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":31,"title":["Accessible Dyslexia Detection with Real-Time Reading Feedback through Robust Interpretable Eye-Tracking Features"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Ivan","family":"Vajs","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electrical Engineering, University of Belgrade, Bulevar Kralja Aleksandra 73, 11120 Belgrade, Serbia"},{"name":"Innovation Center, School of Electrical Engineering, Bulevar Kralja Aleksandra 73, 11120 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9666-7824","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tamara","family":"Papi\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Technical Sciences, University Singidunum, Danijelova 32, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vanja","family":"Kovi\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Philosophy, University of Belgrade, \u010cika-Ljubina 18-20, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4510-210X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrej M.","family":"Savi\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electrical Engineering, University of Belgrade, Bulevar Kralja Aleksandra 73, 11120 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Milica M.","family":"Jankovi\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electrical Engineering, University of Belgrade, Bulevar Kralja Aleksandra 73, 11120 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s11881-003-0001-9","article-title":"A Definition of Dyslexia","volume":"53","author":"Lyon","year":"2003","journal-title":"Ann. Dyslexia"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1997","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(12)60198-6","article-title":"Developmental Dyslexia","volume":"379","author":"Peterson","year":"2012","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1177\/0022219409345009","article-title":"Defining Dyslexia","volume":"43","author":"Tunmer","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Learn. Disabil."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"314","DOI":"10.1002\/dys.352","article-title":"Coping with Academic Failure, a Study of Dutch Children with Dyslexia","volume":"14","author":"Singer","year":"2008","journal-title":"Dyslexia"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-8578.12200","article-title":"Self-Efficacy in Undergraduate Students with Dyslexia: A Mixed Methods Investigation","volume":"45","author":"Stagg","year":"2018","journal-title":"Br. J. Spec. Educ."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9604.2010.01442.x","article-title":"The Impact of Dyslexia on Pupils\u2019 Self-Esteem","volume":"25","author":"Glazzard","year":"2010","journal-title":"Support Learn."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e052278","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2021-052278","article-title":"Quality of Life in Chinese Children with Developmental Dyslexia: A Cross-Sectional Study","volume":"12","author":"Zou","year":"2022","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, Y., He, M., Li, A., Lin, Y., Zhang, X., and Wu, K. (2020). Personality, Behavior Characteristics, and Life Quality Impact of Children with Dyslexia. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17041415"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119383","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2022.119383","article-title":"Lateralization of Early Orthographic Processing during Natural Reading Is Impaired in Developmental Dyslexia","volume":"258","author":"Weiss","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"2995","article-title":"Automatic Classification of Dyslexic Children by Applying Machine Learning to FMRI Images","volume":"24","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biomed. Mater. Eng."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2521","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2007.06.001","article-title":"The Eye Movements of Dyslexic Children during Reading and Visual Search: Impact of the Visual Attention Span","volume":"47","author":"Prado","year":"2007","journal-title":"Vision Res."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Weiss, B., Szalma, J., and Vidny\u00e1nszky, Z. (2022). Data-Driven Detection of Developmental Dyslexia: A Machine Learning Approach Based on Behavioral and Eye-Movement Features. PsyArXiv.","DOI":"10.31234\/osf.io\/qasnc"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"426","DOI":"10.1007\/s11881-022-00256-2","article-title":"Binocular Coordination of Children with Dyslexia and Typically Developing Children in Linguistic and Non-Linguistic Tasks: Evidence from Eye Movements","volume":"72","author":"Temelturk","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ann. Dyslexia"},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Alexander-Passe, N. (2012). Dyslexia and Depression: The Hidden Sorrow: An Investigation of Cause and Effect, Novinka\/Nova Science Publishers."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"244","DOI":"10.1177\/1087054710385783","article-title":"Depression and Anxiety Among Transitioning Adolescents and College Students With ADHD, Dyslexia, or Comorbid ADHD\/Dyslexia","volume":"16","author":"Nelson","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Atten. Disord."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1080\/03075070600572173","article-title":"Dyslexia and Difficulties with Study Skills in Higher Education","volume":"31","author":"Mortimore","year":"2006","journal-title":"Stud. High. Educ."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/1471-3802.12004","article-title":"Dyslexia and Education in the 21st Century","volume":"13","author":"Prevett","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Res. Spec. Educ. Needs"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1002\/dys.391","article-title":"Windows of Reflection: Conceptualizing Dyslexia Using the Social Model of Disability","volume":"15","author":"Macdonald","year":"2009","journal-title":"Dyslexia"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1002\/dys.1606","article-title":"Twice upon a Time: Examining the Effect Socio-Economic Status Has on the Experience of Dyslexia in the United Kingdom","volume":"25","author":"Macdonald","year":"2019","journal-title":"Dyslexia"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jakovljevi\u0107, T., Jankovi\u0107, M.M., Savi\u0107, A.M., Soldatovi\u0107, I., Todorovi\u0107, P., Jere Jakulin, T., Papa, G., and Kovi\u0107, V. (2021). The Sensor Hub for Detecting the Developmental Characteristics in Reading in Children on a White vs. Colored Background\/Colored Overlays. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21020406"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1177\/10870547221140858","article-title":"Pathogenesis of Comorbid ADHD and Chinese Developmental Dyslexia: Evidence From Eye-Movement Tracking and Rapid Automatized Naming","volume":"27","author":"Zhou","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Atten. Disord."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Erbeli, F., Rice, M., and Paracchini, S. (2022). Insights into Dyslexia Genetics Research from the Last Two Decades. Brain Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci12010027"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1002\/pchj.496","article-title":"Dyslexia: Links with Schizotypy and Neurological Soft Signs","volume":"11","author":"Barkus","year":"2022","journal-title":"PsyCh J."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yesilada, Y., and Harper, S. (2019). Technologies for Dyslexia BT-Web Accessibility: A Foundation for Research, Springer London.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4471-7440-0"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procs.2015.08.535","article-title":"Assistive Mobile Applications for Dyslexia","volume":"64","author":"Madeira","year":"2015","journal-title":"Procedia Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procs.2012.10.026","article-title":"A Mobile Application for Displaying More Accessible EBooks for People with Dyslexia","volume":"14","author":"Rello","year":"2012","journal-title":"Procedia Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"(2023, February 06). Dyslexia Testing and Evaluation. Available online: https:\/\/dyslexiaida.org\/testing-and-evaluation\/."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36879","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3062709","article-title":"Advance Machine Learning Methods for Dyslexia Biomarker Detection: A Review of Implementation Details and Challenges","volume":"9","author":"Usman","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jankovi\u0107, M.M. (2022, January 25\u201326). Biomarker-Based Approaches for Dyslexia Screening: A Review. Proceedings of the 2022 ZINC, Novi Sad, Serbia.","DOI":"10.1109\/ZINC55034.2022.9840532"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.1097\/00006324-197808000-00005","article-title":"Eye Movements, Scanpaths, and Dyslexia","volume":"55","author":"Stark","year":"1978","journal-title":"Am. J. Optom. Physiol. Opt."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1345","DOI":"10.1016\/0042-6989(94)90209-7","article-title":"Differences in Eye Movements and Reading Problems in Dyslexic and Normal Children","volume":"34","author":"Eden","year":"1994","journal-title":"Vision Res."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rello, L., and Ballesteros, M. (2015, January 18\u201320). Detecting Readers with Dyslexia Using Machine Learning with Eye Tracking Measures. Proceedings of the 12th International Web for All Conference; Association for Computing Machinery, Florence, Italy.","DOI":"10.1145\/2745555.2746644"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nilsson Benfatto, M., \u00d6qvist Seimyr, G., Ygge, J., Pansell, T., Rydberg, A., and Jacobson, C. (2016). Screening for Dyslexia Using Eye Tracking during Reading. PLoS One, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0165508"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.35940\/ijeat.A1045.1291S319","article-title":"Predictive Model for Dyslexia from Eye Fixation Events","volume":"9","author":"Prabha","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Eng. Adv. Technol."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"171","article-title":"An Efficient Machine Learning Model for Prediction of Dyslexia from Eye Fixation Events","volume":"10","author":"Prabha","year":"2021","journal-title":"New Approaches Eng. Res."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.4018\/IJCINI.20211001.oa28","article-title":"Eye Movement Feature Set and Predictive Model for Dyslexia: Feature Set and Predictive Model for Dyslexia","volume":"15","author":"Appadurai","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Cogn. Inform. Nat. Intell."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104094","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bspc.2022.104094","article-title":"V Prediction of Dyslexia Severity Levels from Fixation and Saccadic Eye Movement Using Machine Learning","volume":"79","author":"JothiPrabha","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biomed. Signal Process. Control"},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Asvestopoulou, T., Manousaki, V., Psistakis, A., Smyrnakis, I., Andreadakis, V., Aslanides, I.M., and Papadopouli, M. (2019). Dyslexml: Screening Tool for Dyslexia Using Machine Learning. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100087","DOI":"10.1016\/j.array.2021.100087","article-title":"Detection of Developmental Dyslexia with Machine Learning Using Eye Movement Data","volume":"12","author":"Raatikainen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Array"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"El Hmimdi, A.E., Ward, L.M., Palpanas, T., and Kapoula, Z. (2021). Predicting Dyslexia and Reading Speed in Adolescents from Eye Movements in Reading and Non-Reading Tasks: A Machine Learning Approach. Brain Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci11101337"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vajs, I., Kovi\u0107, V., Papi\u0107, T., Savi\u0107, A.M., and Jankovi\u0107, M.M. (2022). Spatiotemporal Eye-Tracking Feature Set for Improved Recognition of Dyslexic Reading Patterns in Children. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22134900"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15687","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-95275-1","article-title":"Eye Tracking Based Dyslexia Detection Using a Holistic Approach","volume":"11","author":"Polec","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Vajs, I., Kovi\u0107, V., Papi\u0107, T., Savi\u0107, A.M., and Jankovi\u0107, M.M. (September, January 29). Dyslexia Detection in Children Using Eye Tracking Data Based on VGG16 Network. Proceedings of the 30th European Signal Processing Conference (EUSIPCO), Belgrade, Serbia."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jakovljevi\u0107, T., Jankovi\u0107, M.M., Savi\u0107, A.M., Soldatovi\u0107, I., \u010coli\u0107, G., Jakulin, T.J., Papa, G., and Kovi\u0107, V. (2021). The Relation between Physiological Parameters and Colour Modifications in Text Background and Overlay during Reading in Children with and without Dyslexia. Brain Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202103.0442.v1"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3024","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2023.3234438","article-title":"Eye-Tracking Image Encoding: Autoencoders for the Crossing of Language Boundaries in Developmental Dyslexia Detection","volume":"11","author":"Vajs","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"628634","DOI":"10.3389\/fcomp.2021.628634","article-title":"A Universal Screening Tool for Dyslexia by a Web-Game and Machine Learning","volume":"3","author":"Rauschenberger","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Martins, V.F., Lima, T., Sampaio, P.N.M., and de Paiva, M. (December, January 29). Mobile Application to Support Dyslexia Diagnostic and Reading Practice. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE\/ACS 13th International Conference of Computer Systems and Applications (AICCSA), Agadir, Morocco.","DOI":"10.1109\/AICCSA.2016.7945710"},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Wilkins, A. (2003). Reading Through Colour, John Wiley and Sons."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"519","DOI":"10.1111\/opo.12316","article-title":"The Effect of Coloured Overlays and Lenses on Reading: A Systematic Review of the Literature","volume":"36","author":"Griffiths","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Physiol. Opt. J. Br. Coll. Ophthalmic Opt."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9817.2005.00274.x","article-title":"The Relationship between Dyslexia and Meares-Irlen Syndrome","volume":"28","author":"Kriss","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Res. Read."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Rello, L., and Bigham, J.P. Good Background Colors for Readers: A Study of People with and without Dyslexia. Proceedings of the 19th International ACM SIGACCESS Conference on Computers and Accessibility."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1304","DOI":"10.3758\/s13423-013-0444-x","article-title":"Individual Differences in Fixation Duration Distributions in Reading","volume":"20","author":"Staub","year":"2013","journal-title":"Psychon. Bull. Rev."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Van Rossum, G., and Drake, F.L. (2009). Python 3 Reference Manual, CreateSpace."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1109\/MCSE.2007.55","article-title":"Matplotlib: A 2D Graphics Environment","volume":"9","author":"Hunter","year":"2007","journal-title":"Comput. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"2825","article-title":"Scikit-Learn: Machine Learning in Python","volume":"12","author":"Pedregosa","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Mach. Learn. Res."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"370","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2017.00370","article-title":"Web Camera Based Eye Tracking to Assess Visual Memory on a Visual Paired Comparison Task","volume":"11","author":"Bott","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8680541","DOI":"10.1155\/2016\/8680541","article-title":"Low Cost Eye Tracking: The Current Panorama","volume":"2016","author":"Ferhat","year":"2016","journal-title":"Comput. Intell. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103521","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bspc.2022.103521","article-title":"An Eye Tracker Based on Webcam and its Preliminary Application Evaluation in Chinese Reading Tests","volume":"74","author":"Lin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biomed. Signal Process. Control"},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"(2023, February 07). Compensatory Skills and Dyslexia: What Does the Science Say?. Available online: https:\/\/dyslexiaida.org\/compensatory-skills-and-dyslexia-what-does-the-science-say\/."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1007\/s10209-015-0438-8","article-title":"How to Present More Readable Text for People with Dyslexia","volume":"16","author":"Rello","year":"2017","journal-title":"Univers. Access Inf. Soc."}],"container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3425\/13\/3\/405\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T18:43:10Z","timestamp":1760121790000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3425\/13\/3\/405"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,26]]},"references-count":60,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,3]]}},"alternative-id":["brainsci13030405"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/brainsci13030405","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-3425"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-3425","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,26]]}}}