{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,28]],"date-time":"2026-09-28T22:00:45Z","timestamp":1790632845743,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":96,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,30]],"date-time":"2023-03-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1680134400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100004412","name":"HFSP","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["RGP0057\/2016"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RGP0057\/2016"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100004412","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Constantiner School of Education","award":["RGP0057\/2016"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RGP0057\/2016"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Letter migrations between words in reading aloud (e.g., reading \u201ccane love\u201d as \u201clane love\u201d or \u201clane cove\u201d) are known to result from a deficit in the visual-orthographic analysis and characterize attentional dyslexia. In spontaneous speech, individuals with impairment in the phonological output buffer may show migrations of phonemes between words. The purpose of this study was to examine whether migrations between words in reading aloud can also result from a deficit in the phonological output buffer, to explore the characteristics of migrations resulting from orthographic input and from phonological output deficits, and to examine methods to distinguish these two sources. Using tasks of reading aloud of lists of 92\u2013182 word pairs, we identified 18 adults and adolescents with developmental dyslexia who made between-word letter migrations in reading aloud, significantly more than age-matched controls (372 adults, 26 7th-graders and 44 4th\u20135th-graders). To distinguish between the orthographic input and phonological output sources for these migrations, we administered a test assessing orthographic input without spoken output (written semantic decision on 140 migratable word pairs) and a repetition test of 36 auditorily presented migratable word pairs, assessing spoken output without orthographic input (as well as nonword repetition and 3 span tests). These tests indicated that the migrations in reading aloud of 10 of the participants with dyslexia resulted from an orthographic input deficit\u2014they made migrations not only in reading aloud but also in written word pair comprehension, but not in word pair repetition. For the other 8 participants, the migrations resulted from a phonological output deficit: they made migrations in reading aloud and in word pair repetition, but not in comprehension, and had limited spans and made errors in nonword repetition. We identified several differences between the two types of between-word errors: first, the individuals with attentional dyslexia made omissions of a letter that appeared in the same position in the two words, but the phonological output buffer group did not make such omissions. Second, the groups differed in the origin of migration: orthographic input migrations involve letters that are orthographically adjacent, whereas phonological output migrations involve phonologically adjacent phonemes: phonemes that have just been spoken or that are prepared together in the phonological buffer for production. Migrations from the line below and from 2 lines above the target occurred only in the orthographic input group. This study thus indicates that between-word migrations in reading aloud can result not only from attentional dyslexia, but also from a phonological output buffer deficit, and offers ways to distinguish between the two.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci13040588","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,31]],"date-time":"2023-03-31T02:08:01Z","timestamp":1680228481000},"page":"588","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Letter Migrations between Words in Reading Aloud Can Result either from an Impairment in Orthographic Input or in Phonological Output"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Liora","family":"Toledano","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Language and Brain Laboratory, School of Education and Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Naama","family":"Friedmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Language and Brain Laboratory, School of Education and Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bar-On, A., and Ravid, D. (2018). Handbook of Communication Disorders: Theoretical, Empirical, and Applied Linguistic Perspectives, De Gruyter Mouton.","DOI":"10.1515\/9781614514909-001"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Coltheart, M., Patterson, K.E., and Marshall, J.C. (1980). Deep Dyslexia, Routledge & Kegan Paul."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"204","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.108.1.204","article-title":"DRC: A dual route cascaded model of visual word recognition and reading aloud","volume":"108","author":"Coltheart","year":"2001","journal-title":"Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Ellis, A.W., and Young, A.W. (1996). Human Cognitive Neuropsychology, Erlbaum."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boeckx, C., and Grohmann, K.K. (2013). The Cambridge Handbook of Biolinguistics, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511980435"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Faust, M. (2012). The Handbook of the Neuropsychology of Language, Wiley.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118432501"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1007\/s40474-017-0125-y","article-title":"Is There just one dyslexic reader? Evidence for the existence of distinct dyslexic sub-groups","volume":"4","author":"Hanley","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Dev. Disord. Rep."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1016\/S1364-6613(02)01950-2","article-title":"Paying attention to reading errors in acquired dyslexia","volume":"6","author":"Davis","year":"2002","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1216","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cortex.2010.06.012","article-title":"Developmental attentional dyslexia","volume":"46","author":"Friedmann","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cortex"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.1080\/02643290042000242","article-title":"peripheral reading deficit under conditions of diffuse visual attention","volume":"18","author":"Humphreys","year":"2001","journal-title":"Cogn. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"569","DOI":"10.1080\/02643299308253474","article-title":"Attentional dyslexia: The effect of co-occurring deficits","volume":"10","author":"Price","year":"1993","journal-title":"Cogn. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/0028-3932(77)90112-9","article-title":"The possible role of selective attention in acquired dyslexia","volume":"15","author":"Shallice","year":"1977","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1080\/026432996382006","article-title":"\u201cAttentional dyslexia\u201d in Alzheimer\u2019s disease: A case study","volume":"13","author":"Saffran","year":"1996","journal-title":"Cogn. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1080\/02643298908253288","article-title":"Selective attentional dyslexia","volume":"6","author":"Rayner","year":"1989","journal-title":"Cogn. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1501","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2014.01501","article-title":"Dissociations between developmental dyslexias and attention deficits","volume":"5","author":"Lukov","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Salner, N., Friedmann, N., and Chajut, E. (2017, January 21\u201323). Specific Effect of Attention Allocation on Binding Letter to Within-Word Position. Proceedings of the 4rd Conference on Cognition Research of the Israeli Society for Cognitive Psychology, Akko, Israel."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"578","article-title":"Mindful reading: Mindfulness meditation helps keep readers with dyslexia or ADHD on the lexical track","volume":"7","author":"Tarrasch","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front. Psychol. Cogn."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1002\/dys.284","article-title":"The cognitive deficits responsible for developmental dyslexia: Review of evidence for a selective visual attention disorder","volume":"10","author":"Valdois","year":"2004","journal-title":"Dyslexia"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2006.05.009","article-title":"Developmental dyslexia: The visual attention span hypothesis","volume":"104","author":"Bosse","year":"2007","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/S0010-9452(08)70840-2","article-title":"Visual-spatial attention in developmental dyslexia","volume":"36","author":"Facoetti","year":"2000","journal-title":"Cortex"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1016\/S0926-6410(02)00270-7","article-title":"Auditory and visual automatic attention deficits in developmental dyslexia","volume":"16","author":"Facoetti","year":"2003","journal-title":"Cogn. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saiegh-Haddad, E., and Joshi, M. (2014). Handbook of Arabic Literacy: Insights and Perspectives, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-017-8545-7"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Potier Watkins, C., Dehaene, S., and Friedmann, N. (2023). Characterizing Different Types of Developmental Dyslexias in French: The Malabi Screener, PsychArchives.","DOI":"10.1080\/02643294.2024.2327665"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Traficante, D., Friedmann, N., Rizzi, G., and Luzzatti, C. (2017, January 5\u20137). Multiple patterns of dyslexia in a shallow orthography: Principles for a diagnostic screening of developmental dyslexias. Proceedings of the Conference Abstract: Academy of Aphasia 55th Annual Meeting, Baltimore, MD, USA.","DOI":"10.3389\/conf.fnhum.2017.223.00001"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1087","DOI":"10.1080\/02687030244000491","article-title":"Generalised improvement in speech production for a subject with reproduction conduction aphasia","volume":"16","author":"Franklin","year":"2002","journal-title":"Aphasiology"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"579","DOI":"10.1080\/02687038.2011.643759","article-title":"Phonological short-term memory in conduction aphasia","volume":"26","author":"Gvion","year":"2012","journal-title":"Aphasiology"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1080\/02643290342000122","article-title":"Dissociating effects of number of phonemes, number of syllables, and syllabic complexity on word production in aphasia: I\u2019s the number of phonemes that counts","volume":"21","author":"Nickels","year":"2004","journal-title":"Cogn. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1016\/0010-0277(92)90045-J","article-title":"Disorders of phonological encoding","volume":"42","author":"Butterworth","year":"1992","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.93.3.283","article-title":"A spreading-activation theory of retrieval in sentence production","volume":"93","author":"Dell","year":"1986","journal-title":"Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1016\/0749-596X(88)90070-8","article-title":"The retrieval of phonological forms in production: Tests of predictions from a connectionist model","volume":"27","author":"Dell","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Mem. Lang."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cortex.2014.08.014","article-title":"Steps towards understanding the phonological output buffer and its role in the production of numbers, morphemes, and function words","volume":"63","author":"Dotan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cortex"},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Wales, R.J., and Walker, E. (1976). New Approaches to Language Mechanisms, North-Holland."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/0010-0277(92)90038-J","article-title":"Accessing words in speech production: Stages, processes and representations","volume":"42","author":"Levelt","year":"1992","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1016\/0010-0277(92)90044-I","article-title":"The role of word structure in segmental serial ordering","volume":"42","year":"1992","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Haluts, N., Trippa, M., Friedmann, N., and Treves, A. (2020). Professional or amateur? The phonological output buffer as a working memory operator. Entropy, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/e22060662"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1080\/02643290342000582","article-title":"Separating input and output phonology: Semantic, phonological, and orthographic effects in short-term memory impairment","volume":"22","author":"Howard","year":"2005","journal-title":"Cogn. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Guggenheim, R. (2015). Phonological Output Buffer Developmental Impairment and Its Influence on Reading and Writing. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Tel Aviv University]."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1080\/02643290050110638","article-title":"The selective impairment of the phonological output buffer","volume":"17","author":"Shallice","year":"2000","journal-title":"Cogn. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/01690960902719259","article-title":"Origin of phoneme substitution and phoneme movement errors in aphasia","volume":"25","author":"Laganaro","year":"2010","journal-title":"Lang. Cogn. Process."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1080\/02687038908248992","article-title":"The nature of the phonemic string deficit in conduction aphasia","volume":"3","author":"Kohn","year":"1989","journal-title":"Aphasiology"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1080\/02643299008253440","article-title":"Between-word speech errors in conduction aphasia","volume":"7","author":"Kohn","year":"1990","journal-title":"Cogn. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.2307\/412187","article-title":"The non-anomalous nature of anomalous utterances","volume":"47","author":"Fromkin","year":"1971","journal-title":"Language"},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"86","article-title":"Exploring the time course of lexical access in language production: Picture-word interference studies","volume":"29","author":"Schriefers","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Mem. Cogn."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Osherson, D.N., Gleitman, L.R., and Liberman, M. (1995). An Invitation to Cognitive Science: Language, MIT Press.","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/3964.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1016\/0028-3932(70)90078-3","article-title":"Spoonerisms: The structure of errors in the serial order of speech","volume":"8","author":"MacKay","year":"1970","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"87","article-title":"An empirical evaluation of various treatment directions in developmental attentional dyslexia","volume":"8","author":"Shvimer","year":"2009","journal-title":"Lang. Brain"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.1080\/02687030244000266","article-title":"Treatment of sound errors in aphasia and apraxia of speech: Effects of phonological complexity","volume":"16","author":"Maas","year":"2002","journal-title":"Aphasiology"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1153","DOI":"10.1080\/02687038.2011.577286","article-title":"Comparing monitoring and production based approaches to the treatment of phonological assembly difficulties in aphasia","volume":"25","author":"Waldron","year":"2011","journal-title":"Aphasiology"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1080\/02643290244000013","article-title":"Lexical effects in left neglect dyslexia: A study in Italian patients","volume":"19","author":"Arduino","year":"2002","journal-title":"Cogn. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"877","DOI":"10.1016\/S0028-3932(03)00015-0","article-title":"Reading aloud and lexical decision in neglect dyslexia patients: A dissociation","volume":"41","author":"Arduino","year":"2003","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2015.00143","article-title":"Insights from developmental and acquired letter position dyslexia on morphological decomposition in reading","volume":"9","author":"Friedmann","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1080\/13554794.2011.654222","article-title":"Understanding the mental lexicon through neglect dyslexia: A study on compound noun reading","volume":"19","author":"Marelli","year":"2013","journal-title":"Neurocase"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2015.00497","article-title":"Evidence from neglect dyslexia for morphological decomposition at the early stages of orthographic-visual analysis","volume":"9","author":"Reznick","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1080\/02643294.2010.513967","article-title":"Point and interval estimates of effect sizes for the case-controls design in neuropsychology: Rationale, methods, implementations, and proposed reporting standards","volume":"27","author":"Crawford","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cogn. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1080\/02643290701290146","article-title":"Comparison of a single case to a control or normative sample in neuropsychology: Development of a Bayesian approach","volume":"24","author":"Crawford","year":"2007","journal-title":"Cogn. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2517-6161.1995.tb02031.x","article-title":"Controlling the false discovery rate: A practical and powerful approach to multiple testing","volume":"57","author":"Benjamini","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. R. Stat. Soc. Ser. B"},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Friedmann, N., and Gvion, A. (2003). TILTAN: Battery for the diagnosis of dyslexias in Hebrew, Tel Aviv University."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1348\/174866407X204227","article-title":"Developmental letter position dyslexia","volume":"1","author":"Friedmann","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"658","DOI":"10.1037\/0096-1523.7.3.658","article-title":"The effect of sentence context on ongoing word recognition: Tests of a two-process theory","volume":"7","author":"Stanovich","year":"1981","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1006\/jmla.2000.2724","article-title":"A visually based developmental reading deficit","volume":"43","author":"McCloskey","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Mem. Lang."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"996","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-8624.1998.tb06157.x","article-title":"Individual differences in contextual facilitation: Evidence from dyslexia and poor reading comprehension","volume":"69","author":"Nation","year":"1998","journal-title":"Child Dev."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.2307\/747348","article-title":"Toward an interactive-compensatory model of individual differences in the development of reading fluency","volume":"16","author":"Stanovich","year":"1980","journal-title":"Read. Res. Q."},{"key":"ref_63","first-page":"679","article-title":"Rapid improvement of reading performance in children with dyslexia by altering the reading strategy: A novel approach to diagnoses and therapy of reading deficiencies","volume":"36","author":"Werth","year":"2018","journal-title":"Restor. Neurol. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_64","first-page":"591","article-title":"What causes dyslexia? Identifying the causes and effective compensatory therapy","volume":"37","author":"Werth","year":"2019","journal-title":"Restor. Neurol. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Werth, R. (2021). Dyslexic Readers Improve without Training When Using a Computer-Guided Reading Strategy. Brain Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci11050526"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"482","DOI":"10.1076\/clin.12.4.482.7241","article-title":"Comparing an individual\u2019s test score against norms derived from small samples","volume":"12","author":"Crawford","year":"1998","journal-title":"Clin. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_67","unstructured":"Friedmann, N., and Gvion, A. (2002). FriGvi: Friedmann Gvion Battery for Assessment of Phonological Working Memory, Tel Aviv University."},{"key":"ref_68","first-page":"161","article-title":"FriGvi: A battery for the diagnosis of phonological working memory","volume":"7","author":"Gvion","year":"2008","journal-title":"Lang. Brain"},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"Friedmann, N. (2003). BLIP: Battery for Assessment of Phonological Abilities, Tel Aviv University."},{"key":"ref_70","unstructured":"Friedmann, N., and Toledano, L. (2017). NADNEDA: Distinguishing Orthographic and Phonological Migrations, Tel Aviv University."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1080\/02643294.2018.1457517","article-title":"Vowel letter dyslexia","volume":"35","author":"Friedmann","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cogn. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1016\/0010-0285(90)90012-S","article-title":"Orthographic processing in visual word identification","volume":"22","author":"Humphreys","year":"1990","journal-title":"Cogn. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1037\/0096-1523.9.4.531","article-title":"Letter migration in word perception","volume":"9","author":"Mozer","year":"1983","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2010.11.026","article-title":"Induced letter migrations between words and what they reveal about the orthographic-visual analyzer","volume":"49","author":"Shetreet","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1016\/0010-0277(93)90003-E","article-title":"Varieties of developmental dyslexia","volume":"47","author":"Castles","year":"1993","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"541","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1025501406971","article-title":"Phonological and visual processing deficits can dissociate in developmental dyslexia: Evidence from two case studies","volume":"16","author":"Valdois","year":"2003","journal-title":"Read. Writ."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/S0010-0277(03)00164-1","article-title":"Is there a causal link from phonological awareness to success in learning to read?","volume":"91","author":"Castles","year":"2004","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2401","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2019.02401","article-title":"Developmental letter position dyslexia in Turkish, a morphologically rich and orthographically transparent language","volume":"10","author":"Friedmann","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"G\u00fcven, S., and Friedmann, N. (2021). Vowel dyslexia in Turkish: A window to the complex structure of the sublexical route. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0249016"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1080\/10888438.2022.2058399","article-title":"Even in predictable orthographies: Surface dyslexia in Turkish","volume":"26","author":"Friedmann","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Stud. Read."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1080\/02643294.2018.1468317","article-title":"Developmental surface dysgraphia without surface dyslexia","volume":"35","author":"Hanley","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cogn. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1852","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199806183382517","article-title":"Dyslexia","volume":"338","author":"Marshall","year":"1998","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1080\/02724989243000046","article-title":"Developmental Surface Dyslexia and Dysgraphia: An Orthographic Processing Impairment","volume":"44","author":"Hanley","year":"1992","journal-title":"Q. J. Exp. Psychol. Sect. A"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3681","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2012.07.016","article-title":"When \u2018slime\u2019becomes \u2018smile\u2019: Developmental letter position dyslexia in English","volume":"50","author":"Kohnen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1017\/S0142716499002027","article-title":"Markers of developmental surface dyslexia in a language (Italian) with high grapheme\u2013phoneme correspondence","volume":"20","author":"Zoccolotti","year":"1999","journal-title":"Appl. Psycholinguist."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1080\/026432996382051","article-title":"Cognitive Correlates of Developmental Surface Dyslexia: A Single Case Study","volume":"13","author":"Castles","year":"1996","journal-title":"Cogn. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1111\/mila.12050","article-title":"Developmental dyslexia and the phonological deficit hypothesis","volume":"29","author":"Castles","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mind Lang."},{"key":"ref_88","unstructured":"Loemker, L.E. (1969). Philosophical Papers and Letters, Reidel."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.98.1.122","article-title":"The time course of lexical access in speech production: A study of picture naming","volume":"98","author":"Levelt","year":"1991","journal-title":"Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/0010-0285(80)90005-5","article-title":"A feature-integration theory of attention","volume":"12","author":"Treisman","year":"1980","journal-title":"Cogn. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.ne.13.030190.000325","article-title":"The attention system of the human brain","volume":"13","author":"Posner","year":"1990","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shallice, T. (1988). From Neuropsychology to Mental Structure, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511526817"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"871","DOI":"10.1016\/0028-3932(93)90145-P","article-title":"Attentional dyslexia: A single case study","volume":"31","author":"Warrington","year":"1993","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref_94","unstructured":"Allport, D.A. (1977). Attention and Performance VI, Routledge."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"923","DOI":"10.1037\/0096-1523.30.5.923","article-title":"What do letter migration errors reveal about letter position coding in visual word recognition?","volume":"30","author":"Davis","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform."},{"key":"ref_96","unstructured":"Requin, J. (1978). Attention and Performance VII, Routledge."}],"container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3425\/13\/4\/588\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T19:07:40Z","timestamp":1760123260000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3425\/13\/4\/588"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,30]]},"references-count":96,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,4]]}},"alternative-id":["brainsci13040588"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/brainsci13040588","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-3425"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-3425","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,30]]}}}