{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T02:49:44Z","timestamp":1791946184208,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":91,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,7]],"date-time":"2023-04-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1680825600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Parkinson\u2019s disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disease, with symptoms such as tremor, bradykinesia with rigidity, and depression appearing in the late stage of life. The key hallmark of PD is the loss or death of dopaminergic neurons in the region substantia nigra pars compacta. Neuroinflammation plays a key role in the etiology of PD, and the contribution of immunity-related events spurred the researchers to identify anti-inflammatory agents for the treatment of PD. Neuroinflammation-based biomarkers have been identified for diagnosing PD, and many cellular and animal models have been used to explain the underlying mechanism; however, the specific cause of neuroinflammation remains uncertain, and more research is underway. So far, microglia and astrocyte dysregulation has been reported in PD. Patients with PD develop neural toxicity, inflammation, and inclusion bodies due to activated microglia and a-synuclein\u2013induced astrocyte conversion into A1 astrocytes. Major phenotypes of PD appear in the late stage of life, so there is a need to identify key early-stage biomarkers for proper management and diagnosis. Studies are under way to identify key neuroinflammation-based biomarkers for early detection of PD. This review uses a constructive analysis approach by studying and analyzing different research studies focused on the role of neuroinflammation in PD. The review summarizes microglia, astrocyte dysfunction, neuroinflammation, and key biomarkers in PD. An approach that incorporates multiple biomarkers could provide more reliable diagnosis of PD.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci13040634","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,10]],"date-time":"2023-04-10T03:26:06Z","timestamp":1681097166000},"page":"634","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":71,"title":["Microglia and Astrocytes Dysfunction and Key Neuroinflammation-Based Biomarkers in Parkinson\u2019s Disease"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9715-3457","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kun","family":"Chen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosurgery, Changzheng Hospital, Naval Medical University, Shanghai 200003, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Haoyang","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosurgery, Changzheng Hospital, Naval Medical University, Shanghai 200003, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Iqra","family":"Ilyas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Centre of Excellence in Molecular Biology (CEMB), University of The Punjab, Lahore 53700, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0309-1230","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Arif","family":"Mahmood","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Medical Genetics and Hunan Key Laboratory of Medical Genetics, School of Life Sciences, Central South University, Changsha 410078, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lijun","family":"Hou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosurgery, Changzheng Hospital, Naval Medical University, Shanghai 200003, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"659","DOI":"10.1111\/cge.14019","article-title":"Recalling the pathology of Parkinson\u2019s disease; lacking exact figure of prevalence and genetic evidence in Asia with an alarming outcome: A time to step-up","volume":"100","author":"Mahmood","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. 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